u 


THE  CHINESE 


THEIR 


BY 


W.  A.  P.  MARTIN,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  THE  TC.NGWES  COLLEGE.  PEKING 


NEW    YORK 
HARPER   &  BROTHERS,  FRANKLIN  SQUARE 

1881 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1881,  by 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 

All  rights  reserved. 


TO 


PROFESSOR    W.  D.  WHITNEY,   LL.D. 

THE    MAINSTAY 

OF  THE   AMERICAN   ORIENTAL   SOCIETY,  AND 

A    DISTINGUISHED    LEADER    IN    ORIENTAL    STUDIES,  THIS 

LITTLE    VOLUME,  WHICH,  IN    SOME    SENSE 

OWES    ITS   EXISTENCE   TO   HIM 


3s   fleepectfnllr) 

BY  HIS  FRIEND 

THE  AUTHOR 


2218709 


PREFACE. 


MY  DEAR  PROFESSOR  WHITNEY, — 

The  earliest  of  the  following  essays  was  written  at  your 
instance  twenty  years  ago  ;  and  you  will  recognize  several  of  the 
others  as  having  passed  through  your  hands  on  their  way  to  the 
A.  0.  S.,  or  to  the  magazines  in  which  they  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance. 

You  will,  I  trust,  welcome  them  as  old  friends,  and  for  their 
sake  give  a  favorable  reception  to  those  which  are  now,  for  the 
first  time,  introduced  to  your  attention. 

The  contents  of  this  volume,  though  somewhat  miscellaneous, 
are  yet  connected  by  a  certain  unity ;  falling  naturally  into  three 
divisions,  treating  respectively  of  the  education,  philosophy,  and 
letters  of  the  Chinese — in  a  word,  of  their  intellectual  life. 

I  call  them  Hanlin*  Papers,  not  merely  because  the  first  three 
discuss  educational  processes  which  culminate  in  the  Hanlin 
Academy,  but  more  especially  because  the  Hanlin  is  confessedly 
the  highest  embodiment  of  Chinese  intellectual  life. 

No  one  of  these  papers  throws  any  light  on  your  favorite 
field  of  research,!  and  none  of  them  pretends  to  be  exhaustive 
of  its  special  subject ;  they  are  offered  to  you  and  the  public 
only  as  a  bundle  of  Beitrage — a  small  contribution  towards  the 
better  understanding  of  China  and  the  Chinese. 

Yours  truly,         \\  .  A.  P.  MARTIN. 
PEKING,  March  24,  1880. 

*  The  title  of  the  fir^t  edition,  printed  in  China.  f  Philology. 


CONTENTS. 


PACK 

THE  HANLIN  YUAN,  OR  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY 1 

COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  IN  CHINA 39 

EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 57 

AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  IN  CHINA 85 

THE  SAN  KIAO,  OR  THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA '. 97 

REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE 125 

Isis  AND  OSIRIS,  OR  ORIENTAL  DUALISM 154 

ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA 167 

REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE 191 

ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  EPISTOLARY  COMPOSITION 212 

CHINESE  FABLES 224 

THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  CHINA 228 

APPENDIX. 

THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS  IN  CHINA 257 

SECULAR  LITERATURE,  VIEWED  AS  A  MISSIONARY  AGENCY 271 

ACCOUNT  OF  A  VISIT  TO  THE  JEWS  IN  HONAN 287 

THE  DUKE  OF  K'UNO,  SUCCESSOR  OF  CONFUCIUS 307 

Two  CHINESE  POEMS 313 


THE   CHINESE: 

THEIR  EDUCATION,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND  LETTERS. 


THE  HANLIN  YUAN,  OR  DIPERIAL  ACADEMY. 

NEAK  the  foot  of  a  bridge  that  spans  the  Imperial  Canal  a 
few  rods  to  the  north  of  the  British  Legation,  the  visitor  to  Pe- 
king may  have  noticed  the  entrance  to  a  small  yamen.  Here 
are  the  headquarters  of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  one  of  the  pivots 
of  the  Empire,  and  the  very  centre  of  its  literary  activity. 

On  entering  the  enclosure,  nothing  meets  the  eye  of  one  who 
is  unable  to  read  the  inscriptions  that  would  awaken  the  faintest 
suspicion  of  the  importance  of  the  place.  A  succession  of  open 
courts  with  broken  pavements,  and  covered  with  rubbish;  five 
low,  shed-like  structures,  one  story  in  height,  that  have  the  ap- 
pearance of  an  empty  barn ;  these  flanked  by  a  double  series  of 
humbler  buildings,  quite  inferior  to  the  stables  of  a  well-conduct- 
ed farmstead — some  of  Jhe  latter  in  ruins ;  and  dust  and  decay 
everywhere.  Such  is  the  aspect  presented  by  the  chief  seat  of 
an  institution  which  is  justly  regarded  as  among  the  glories  of 
the  Empire.  A  glance,  however,  at  the  inscriptions  on  the  walls 
— some  of  them  in  Imperial  autograph — warns  the  visitor  that 
he  is  not  treading  on  common  ground.* 

*  This  paper  appeared  originally  in  the  North  American  Review,  July,  1874. 
Since  that  date  the  buildings  here  described  have  undergone  a  few  slight  re- 
pairs, but  are  not  otherwise  changed. 

1 


2  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

This  impression  is  confirmed  when,  arriving  at  the  last  of  the 
transverse  buildings,  it  is  found  to  be  locked,  and  all  efforts  to 
obtain  an  entrance  fruitless.  Its  yellow  tiling  is  suggestive ;  and 
the  janitor,  proof  against  persuasion,  announces,  with  a  mysteri- 
ous air,  that  this  is  a  pavilion  sacred  to  the  use  of  the  emperor. 
There,  concealed  from  vulgar  eyes,  stands  a  throne,  on  which  his 
Majesty  sits  in  state  whenever  he  deigns  to  honor  the  Academy 
with  his  presence. 

Sundry  inscriptions  in  gilded  characters  record  the  dates  and 
circumstances  of  these  Imperial  visits,  which  are  by  no  means  so 
frequent  as  to  be  commonplace  occurrences.  A  native  guide- 
book to  the  "  lions  "  of  the  capital,  devoting  eighteen  pages  to 
the  Hanlin  Yuan,  dwells  with  special  emphasis  on  the  imposing 
ceremonial  connected  with  a  visit  of  Kienlung  the  Magnificent 
in  the  first  year  of  the  cycle  which  occurred  after  the  commence- 
ment of  his  reign. 

From  this  authority  we  learn  that  the  rooms  of  the  Academy, 
having  fallen  into  a  state  of  decay,  were  rebuilt  by  order  of  the 
Emperor,  and  rededicated,  with  solemn  rites,  to  the  service  of 
letters.  His  Majesty  appeared  in  person  to  do  honor  to  the  oc- 
casion, and  conferred  on  the  two  presidents  the  favor  of  an  en- 
tertainment in  the  Imperial  pavilion.  Of  the  members  of  the 
Academy  not  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  were  pres- 
ent. "  Among  the  proudest  recollections  of  the  Hall  of  Gems  " 
(the  Hanlin),  says  the  chronicler,  "  for  a  thousand  years  there 
was  no  day  like  that."  « 

The  Emperor  further  signalized  the  occasion  by  two  conspic- 
uous gifts. 

The  first  was  a  present  to  the  library  of  a  complete  set  of  the 
wonderful  encyclopaedia  called  the  Tu-shu-chi-ch'eng.  Printed 
in  the  reign  of  Kanghi,  on  movable  copper  types,  and  compre- 
hending a  choice  selection  of  the  most  valuable  works,  it  extends 
to  six  thousand  volumes,  and  constitutes  of  itself  a  library  of  no 
contemptible  magnitude. 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  3 

The  other  gift,  less  bulky,  but  more  precious,  was  an  original 
ode  from  the  Imperial  pencil.  Written  as  an  impromptu  effu- 
sion in  the  presence  of  the  assembled  Academicians,  it  bears  so 
many  marks  of  premeditation  that  no  one  could  have  been  im- 
posed on  by  the  artifice  of  Imperial  vanity.  It  is  engraved  after 
the  original  autograph  on  a  pair  of  marble  slabs,  from  which  we 
have  taken  a  copy. 

In  their  native  dress  these  verses  are  worthy  of  their  august 
author,  who  was  a  poet  of  no  mean  ability ;  but  in  the  process 
of  translation  they  lose  as  much  as  a  Chinaman  does  in  exchang- 
ing his  flowing  silks  for  the  parsimonious  costume  of  the  West. 
At  the  risk  of  producing  a  travesty  instead  of  a  translation,  we 
venture  to  offer  a  prose  version. 

ODE 

COMPOSED  BY  THE  EMPEROR  KIENLUNG  ON  VISITING  THE  HANLIN  YUAN  IN   1744. 

On  this  auspicious  morning  the  recipients  of  celestial  favor, 
Rank  after  rank,  unite  in  singing  the  hymn  of  rededication. 
Thus  the  birds  renew  their  plumage,  and  the  eagle,  soaring  heavenward, 

symbolizes  the  rise  of  great  men. 
Those  here  who  chant  poems  and  expound  the  Book  of  Changes  are  all 

worthies  of  distinguished  merit. 
Their  light  concentres  on  the  embroidered  throne,  and  my  pen  distils  its 

flowery  characters, 

While  incense  in  spiral  wreaths  rises  from  the  burning  censer. 
Before  me  is  the  pure,  bright,  pearly  Hall ; 

Compared  with  this,  who  vaunts  the  genii  on  the  islands  of  the  blest  ? 
A  hundred  years  of  aesthetic  culture  culminate  in  the  jubilee  of  this  day. 
To  maintain  a  state  of  prosperity,  we  must  cherish  fear,  and  rejoice  with 

trembling. 

In  your  new  poems,  therefore,  be  slow  to  extol  the  vastness  of  the  Empire ; 
Rather  by  faithful  advice  uphold  the  throno. 
I  need  not  seek  that  ministers  like  Fu-Yuih  shall  be  revealed  to  me  in 

dreams ; 
For  at  this  moment  I  am  startled  to  find  myself  singing  the  song  of  Yau 

(in  the  midst  of  my  ministers). 
In  my  heart  I  rejoice  that  ye  hundreds  of  officers  all  know  my  mind, 


4  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

And  will  not  fan  my  pride  with  lofty  flattery. 

Happy  am  I  to  enter  this  garden  of  letters, 

In  the  soft  radiance  of  Indian  summer ; 

To  consecrate  the  day  to  the  honor  of  genius, 

And  to  gather  around  my  table  the  gems  of  learning ; 

But  I  blush  at  my  unworthiness  to  entertain  the  successors  of  Fang  and  Tu. 

Why  should  Ma  and  Tsieu  be  accounted  solitary  examples  ? 

Here  we  have  a  new  edition  of  the  ancient  Shih-chii  (library  of  the  Hans). 

We  behold  anew  the  glorious  light  of  a  literary  constellation. 

But  the  shadow  on  the  flowery  tiles  has  reached  the  number  eight ; 

Drink  till  you  are  drunk ;  three  times  pass  round  the  bowl. 

When  morning  sunlight  fell  on  the  pictured  screen, 

We  opened  the  Hanlin  with  a  feast, 

The  members  assembling  in  official  robes. 

We  took  a  glance  at  the  library — enough  to  load  five  carts  and  fill  four 

storehouses. 

We  visited  in  order  the  well  of  Lew  and  the  pavilion  of  Ko. 
We  watch  the  pencil  trace  the  gemmy  page, 
While  the  waters  of  Ying-chau  (the  Pierian  Spring)  rise  to  the  brim ;  and 

in  flowery  cups  we  dispense  the  fragrant  tea. 
Anciently  ministers  were  compared  to  boats  which  crossed  rivers ; 
With  you  for  my  ministers  I  would  dare  to  encounter  the  waves  of  the 

sea. 

From  this  effusion  of  Imperial  genius  we  turn  again  to  the 
august  body  in  whose  honor  it  was  written,  and  inquire,  Where 
are  the  apartments  in  which  those  learned  scribes  labor  on  their 
elegant  tasks?  Where  is  the  hall  in  which  they  assemble  for 
the  transaction  of  business?  Where  the  library  supplied  by  Im- 
perial munificence  for  the  choicest  scholars  of  the  Empire  ?  These 
questions  are  soon  answered,  but  not  in  a  way  to  meet  the  expec- 
tations of  the  visitor.  The  composing-rooms  are  those  ranges 
of  low  narrow  chambers  on  either  hand  of  the  entrance,  some 
of  them  bearing  labels  which  indicate  that  it  is  there  the  Impe- 
rial will  puts  on  its  stately  robes ;  but  they  are  empty,  and  nei- 
ther swept  nor  garnished. 

Those  of  the  members  who  have  special  functions  are  employed 
within  the  precincts  of  the  palace,  while  the  large  class  known  as 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  5 

probationers  prosecute  their  studies  in  a  separate  college  called 
the  Shu-ch'ang-kwan.  Common  hall,  or  assembly-room,  there  is 
none.  The  society  holds  no  business  meetings.  Its  organization 
is  despotic ;  the  work  of  the  members  being  mapped  out  by  the 
directory,  which  consists  of  the  presidents  and  vice-presidents. 
In  an  out-of-the-way  corner,  you  are  shown  a  suite  of  small 
rooms,  which  serves  as  a  vestry  for  these  magnates,  where  they 
drink  tea,  change  their  robes,  and  post  up  their  records.  For 
this  purpose  they  come  together  nine  times  a  month,  and  remain 
in  session  about  two  hours. 

As  for  the  other  members,  they  convene  only  on  feast-days  as 
marked  in  the  rubrics  of  the  State,  and  then  it  is  merely  for  the 
performance  of  religious  rites  or  civil  ceremonies.  The  ritual 
for  both  (or  rather  the  calendar)  is  conspicuously  posted  on  the 
pillars  of  the  front  court,  suggesting  that  the  sap  and  juice  of 
the  Academy  have  dried  up,  and  that  these  husks  of  ceremony 
are  the  residuum. 

So  far  as  this  locality  is  concerned,  this  is  true ;  for  though 
the  Academy  exists,  as  we  shall  see,  in  undiminished  vigor,  the 
work  intended  to  be  done  here  is  transferred  to  other  places; 
and  but  for  occasions  of  ceremony  these  halls  would  be  as  little 
trodden  as  those  of  the  academies  of  Nineveh  or  Babylon.  Of 
the  ceremonies  here  performed,  the  most  serious  is  the  worship 
of  Confucius,  before  whose  shrine  the  company  of  disciples  ar- 
ranged in  files,  near  or  remote,  according  to  their  rank,  kneel 
three  times  in  the  open  court,  and  nine  times  bow  their  heads  to 
the  earth.  A  more  modern  sage,  Han-wen-kung,  whose  chief 
merit  was  an  eloquent  denunciation  of  Buddhism,  is  revered  as 
the  champion  of  orthodoxy,  and  honored  with  one  third  this 
number  of  prostrations. 

Besides  the  temples  to  these  lights  of  literature,  there  is  an- 
other shrine  in  which  incense  is  perpetually  burning  before  the 
tablets  of  certain  Tauist  divinities,  among  them  the  god  of  the 
North  Star. 


6  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

The  juxtaposition  of  these  altars  illustrates  the  curious  jumble 
of  religious  ideas  which  prevails  even  among  the  educated  classes. 
If  Confucianism,  pure  and  simple,  calm  and  philosophic,  were  to 
be  found  anywhere,  where  should  we  expect  to  meet  with  it  if 
not  in  the  halls  of  the  Hanlin  Yuan  ? 

As  to  the  library,  it  must  have  been  at  least  respectable  in  the 
palmy  days  of  Kienlung — that  Emperor  having  replenished  it, 
as  we  have  seen,  by  a  gift  of  six  thousand  volumes.  Copies  of 
a  still  larger  collection  of  works,  the  Sze-k'u-cKuen-shu,  printed 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  same  reign,  were  deposited  there,  as 
also  a  manuscript  copy  of  the  immense  collection  known  as 
Yung-lo-ta-tien.  But  in  China,  libraries  are  poorly  preserved ; 
books  have  no  proper  binding,  the  leaves  are  loosely  stitched, 
the  paper  flimsy  and  adapted  to  the  taste  of  a  variety  of  insects, 
while  their  official  guardians  often  commit  depredations  under 
the  influence  of  an  appetite  not  altogether  literary. 

Through  these  combined  influences,  the  Hanlin  library  has 
dwindled  almost  to  a  vanishing-point.  Two  of  the  book-rooms 
being  within  the  sacred  enclosure  of  the  Imperial  pavilion,  the 
writer  was  not  permitted  to  see  them.  The  greater  part  of  the 
books  have  been  transferred  elsewhere ;  and  the  condition  of 
those  that  remain  may  be  inferred  from  that  of  the  only  book- 
room  that  was  accessible.  Its  furniture  consisted  of  half  a  dozen 
cases,  some  locked,  some  open — the  latter  empty  ;  the  floor  was 
strewn  with  fragments  of  paper,  and  the  absence  of  footprints  in 
the  thick  deposit  of  dust  sufficiently  indicated  that  the  pathway 
to  this  fountain  of  knowledge  is  no  longer  frequented. 

But  things  in  China  are  not  to  be  estimated  by  ordinary  rules. 
Here  the  decay  of  a  building  is  no  indication  of  the  decadence 
of  the  institution  which  it  represents.  The  public  buildings  of 
the  Chinese  are,  for  the  most  part,  mean  and  contemptible  in 
comparison  with  those  of  Western  nations ;  but  it  would  not  be 
less  erroneous  for  us  to  judge  their  civilization  by  the  state  of 
their  architecture  than  for  them,  as  they  are  prone  to  do,  to 


THE    UANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL   ACADEMY.  7 

measure  ours  by  the  tape-line  of  our  tailor.  With  them  architect- 
ure is  not  a  fine  art ;  public  edifices  of  every  class  are  construct- 
ed on  a  uniform  model;  and  even  in  private  dwellings  there 
is  no  such  thing  as  novelty  or  variety  of  design.  The  original 
idea  of  both  is  incapable  of  much  development;  the  wooden 
frame  and  limited  height  giving  them  an  air  of  meanness ; 
while  the  windowless  wall,  which  caution  or  custom  requires  to 
be  drawn  around  every  considerable  building,  excludes  it  from 
the  public  view,  and  consequently  diminishes,  if  it  does  not  de- 
stroy, the  desire  for  aesthetic  effect.  Materialistic  as  the  people 
are  in  their  habits  of  thought,  their  government,  based  on  an- 
cient maxims,  has  sought  to  repress  rather  than  encourage  the 
tendency  to  luxury  in  this  direction.  The  genius  of  China  does 
not  affect  excellence  in  material  arts.  With  more  propriety  than 
ancient  Rome  she  might  apply  to  herself  the  lines  of  the  Roman 
poet: 

"  Excudent  alii  spirantia  mollius  sera 

.  .  .  regere  imperio  populos  .  .  . 

Hae  tibi  erunt  artes ;  pacisque  imponere  morem." 

For  not  only  is  the  Chinese  notoriously  backward  in  all  those 
accomplishments  in  which  the  Roman  excelled,  but,  without  be- 
ing warlike,  he  has  equalled  the  Roman  in  the  extent  of  his  con- 
quests, and  surpassed  him  in  the  permanence  of  his  possessions. 
With  him  the  art  of  government  is  the  "  great  study ;"  and  all 
else — science,  literature,  religion — merely  subsidiary. 

For  six  hundred  years,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  interval, 
the  Hanlin  has  had  its  home  within  the  walls  of  Peking,  wit- 
nessing from  this  position  the  rise  of  three  Imperial  dynasties 
and  the  overthrow  of  two.  Under  the  Mongols  it  stood,  not  on 
its  present  site,  but  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  present  drum-tower. 
Kublai  and  his  successors  testified  their  sense  of  its  importance 
by  installing  it  in  an  old  palace  of  the  Kin  Tartars.  Eo-yang- 
ch'u,  a  discontented  scholar  of  a  later  age,  alluding  to  the  con- 
trast presented  by  the  quarters  it  then  occupied,  laments  in  verse 


8  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

"  The  splendid  abode  of  the  old  Hanlin, 
The  glittering  palace  of  the  Prince  of  Kin." 

The  Ming  emperors  removed  it  to  its  present  position,  appro- 
priating for  its  use  the  site  of  an  old  granary.  The  Tsing  emper- 
ors had  a  palace  to  bestow  on  the  Mongolian  lamas,  but  allowed 
the  Hanlin  to  remain  in  its  contracted  quarters,  erecting  at  the 
same  time,  in  immediate  contiguity,  a  palace  for  one  of  their 
princes.  This  is  now  occupied  by  the  British  Legation,  whose 
lofty  chimneys  overlook  the  grounds  of  the  Academy,  and  so 
menace  the  fung-skuy  (good  luck)  of  the  entire  literary  corpora- 
tion. If  this  were  the  whole  of  its  history,  the  Hanlin  would 
still  enjoy  the  distinction  of  being  more  than  twice  as  ancient  as 
any  similar  institution  now  extant  in  the  Western  world ;  but 
this  last  period — one  of  few  vicissitudes — covers  no  more  than 
half  its  career.  Its  annals  run  back  to  twice  six  hundred  years, 
and  during  that  long  period  it  has  shared  the  fortunes  and  fol- 
lowed the  footsteps  of  the  several  dynasties  which  have  contend- 
ed for  the  mastery  of  the  Empire.  From  its  nature  and  consti- 
tution attached  to  the  court,  it  has  migrated  with  the  court,  now 
north,  now  south,  until  the  capital  became  fixed  in  its  present 
position.  At  the  beginning  of  the' fifteenth  century,  the  Acade- 
my was  for  a  few  years  at  Nanking,  where  Hungwu  made  his 
capital.  During  the  period  of  the  Crusades  it  accompanied  the 
court  of  the  Southern  Sungs  as  they  retired  before  the  invading 
Tartars,  and  fixed  at  Hangchau  the  seat  of  their  semi-empire. 
For  two  centuries  previous  it  had  shed  its  lustre  on  Pienliang, 
the  capital  of  the  Northern  Sungs. 

During  the  five  short  dynasties  (907-960)  it  disappears  amidst 
the  confusion  of  perpetual  war,  though  even  then  each  aspirant 
for  "  The  Yellow  "  surrounded  himself  with  some  semblance  of 
the  Hanlin,  as  a  circumstance  essential  to  Imperial  state  ;  but  its 
earliest,  brightest,  and  longest  period  of  repose  was  the  reign  of 
the  Tangs,  from  627  to  904,  or  from  the  rise  of  Mahomet  till 
the  death  of  Alfred.  For  China  this  is  not  an  ancient  date; 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  9 

but  it  was  scarcely  possible  that  such  a  body,  with  such  objects, 
should  come  into  existence  at  any  earlier  epoch.  Under  the 
more  ancient  dynasties  the  range  of  literature  was  limited,  and 
the  style  of  composition  rude.  It  is  not  till  the  long  reign  of 
the  house  of  Han  that  the  language  obtains  its  full  maturity ; 
but  even  then  taste  was  little  cultivated — the  writers  of  that  day 
being,  as  the  native  critics  sav,  more  studious  of  matter  than  of 

o'  *  ' 

manner.  During  the  short-lived  dynasties  that  followed  the 
Han  and  Tsin,  the  struggle  for  power  allowed  no  breathing-time 
for  the  revival  of  letters ;  but  when  the  Empire,  so  long  drenched 
in  blood,  was  at  length  united  under  the  sway  of  the  Tangs,  the 
beginning  of  the  new  era  of  peace  and  prosperity  was  marked 
by  an  outburst  of  literary  splendor. 

For  twenty  years  Kaotsu,  the  founder,  had  been  involved  in 
sanguinary  conflicts.  In  such  circumstances  valor  was  virtue, 
and  military  skill  comprised  all  that  was  valued  in  learning.  In 
the  work  of  domestic  conquest,  his  most  efficient  aid  was  his 
second  son,  Shemin.  Destined  to  complete  what  his  father  had 
begun,  but  with  a  genius  more  comprehensive  and  a  taste  more 
refined,  this  young  prince  was  to  Kaotsu  what  Alexander  was  to 
Philip,  or  Frederick  the  Great  to  the  rough  Frederick  William. 
Studying  the  poets  and  philosophers  by  the  light  of  his  camp- 
fires,  he  no  sooner  found  himself  in  undisputed  possession  of  the 
throne  than  he  addressed  himself  to  the  promotion  of  learning. 
In  this  he  was  only  reverting  to  the  traditions  of  an  empire 
which  from  the  earliest  times  had  always  been  a  worshipper  of 
letters.  But  Taitsung  (the  name  by  which  he  is  called  in  histo- 
ry) did  not  confine  himself  to  the  beaten  path  of  tradition ;  he 
issued  a  decree  that  men  of  ability  should  be  sought  out  and 
brought  to  court  from  their  retired  homes  and  secret  hiding- 
places.  His  predecessors  had  done  the  same;  but  Taitsung 
formed  them  into  a  body  under  the  name  of  Wen-hio-kuan,  and 
installed  them  in  a  portion  of  his  palace,  where,  the  historian 
tells  us,  he  was  accustomed,  in  the  intervals  of  business  and  late 

1* 


10  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

in  the  hours  of  the  night,  to  converse  with  these  learned  doctors. 
The  number  of  these  eminent  scholars  was  eighteen,  in  allusion 
possibly  (though  a  Confucian  would  repudiate  the  idea)  to  the 
number  of  Arhans  or  disciples  who  composed  the  inner  circle  of 
the  family  of  Buddha — Buddhism  being  at  that  time  in  high  re- 
pute. Among  these  the  most  prominent  were  Fang-yuenling 
and  Tu-juhui,  who  were  afterwards  advanced  to  the  rank  of  min- 
isters of  State.  We  have  already  seen  their  names  in  the  Ode 
of  Kienlung,  where  they  are  alluded  to  as  the  typical  ancestors 
of  the  literary  brotherhood.  This  was  the  germ  of  the  Hanlin 
Yuan. 

Under  previous  reigns  letters  had  been  valued  solely  as  an  aid 
to  politics,  and  scholarship  as  a  proof  of  qualification  for  civil 
employment.  But  from  this  time  letters  began  to  assume  the 
position  of  a  final  cause,  and  civil  employment  was  made  use  of 
as  an  incentive  to  encourage  their  cultivation.  Previously  to  this 
the  single  exercise  of  answering  in  writing  a  series  of  questions 
intended  to  gauge  the  erudition  and  test  the  acumen  of  the  can- 
didate was  all  that  was  required  in  examinations  for  the  civil 
service ;  but  from  this  epoch  taste  presided  in  the  literary  arena, 
and  compositions,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  in  which  elegance  of 
style  is  the  chief  aim  became  thenceforth  a  leading  feature  in 
the  curriculum.  That  wonderful  net  which  catches  the  big  fish 
for  the  service  of  the  Emperor,  and  allows  the  smaller  ones  to 
slip  through,  was  during  this  dynasty  so  far  perfected  that  in  the 
lapse  of  a  thousand  years  it  has  undergone  no  very  important 
change.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  epoch  of  the  Tangs 
became  distinguished  above  all  preceding  dynasties  as  the  age  of 
poets.  Litaipe — whose  brilliant  genius  was  believed  to  be  an  in- 
carnation of  the  golden  light  of  the  planet  Venus — Tufu,  Hanyu, 
and  others  shed  lustre  on  its  opening  reigns.  Their  works  have  be- 
come the  acknowledged  model  of  poetic  composition,  from  which 
no  modern  writer  dares  to  depart ;  and,  under  the  collective  title 
of  the  poetry  of  Tang,  they  have  added  to  the  Imperial  crown 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OB    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  11 

an  amaranthine  wreath  such  as  no  other  dynasty  has  ever  worn. 
Litaipe  was  admitted  to  the  Academy  by  Minghwang  or  Huen- 
tsung ;  the  Emperor,  on  that  occasion,  giving  him  a  feast,  and,  as 
native  authors  say,  condescending  to  stir  the  poet's  soup  with 
the  hand  that  bore  the  sceptre. 

It  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  art  of  printing  made  its 
appearance  almost  simultaneously  with  the  formation  of  the 
Academy  and  the  reorganization  of  the  examination  system. 
Originating  in  a  common  impulse,  all  three  interacted  on  each 
other,  and  worked  together  as  powerful  agencies  in  carrying  for- 
ward the  common  movement.  The  method  of  stamping  char- 
acters on  silk  or  paper  had  no  doubt  been  discovered  long  be- 
fore ;  but  it  was  under  this  dynasty  that  it  was  first  employed 
for  the  reproduction  of  books  on  a  large  scale.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, so  employed  in  the  reign  of  Taitsung.  That  monarch,  re- 
solving to  found  a  library  that  should  surpass  in  extent  and  mag- 
nificence anything  that  had  been  known  in  the  past,  was  unable 
to  imagine  a  more  expeditious,  or,  at  least,  a  more  satisfactory, 
method  of  producing  books  than  the  slow  process  of  transcrip- 
tion. For  this  purpose  a  host  of  pencils  would  be  required ; 
and  Taitsung,  in  the  interest  of  his  library,  made  a  fresh  levy  of 
learned  men  who  were  elegant  scribes  as  well  as  able  scholars. 
To  these,  Huentsung,  one  of  his  successors,  added  another  body 
of  scholars,  and,  combining  the  three  classes  into  one  society, 
called  it  by  the  name  of  Hanlin,  or  the  "  Forest  of  Pencils  " — a 
designation  that  was  now  more  appropriate  than  it  would  have 
been  when  the  number  of  its  members  fell  short  of  a  score. 

When  the  printing-press  was  introduced  as  an  auxiliary  in  the 
manufacture  of  books,  it  relieved  the  Imperial  scribes  of  a  por- 
tion of  their  labors,  but  it  did  not  supersede  them.  Released 
from  the  drudgery  of  copying,  they  were  free  to  devote  their 
leisure  to  composition ;  and  in  China  in  the  eighth  century,  as 
in  Europe  in  the  fifteenth,  the  art  of  printing  imparted  a  power- 
ful stimulus  to  the  intellectual  activity  of  the  age. 


12  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

Kising,  as  we  have  seen,  in  the  halcyon  days  of  Taitsung,  the 
Hanlin  Yuan  was  not  long  in  attaining  its  full  development.  In 
the  reign  of  Huentsung  it  received  the  name  by  which  it  is  now 
known,  and  through  twelve  centuries,  from  that  day  to  this,  it 
has  undergone  no  essential  modification,  either  in  its  objects, 
membership,  or  mode  of  operation ;  if  we  except,  perhaps,  the 
changes  required  to  adapt  it  to  the  duplicate  official  system  of 
the  present  dynasty.  Its  constitution  and  functions,  as  laid 
down  in  the  Ta-ts ' ing-hwui-tien,  or  Institutes  of  the  Empire,  are 
as  follows : 

1.  There  shall  be  two  presidents — one  Manchu  and  one  Chi- 
nese.    They  shall  superintend  the  composition  of  dynastic  his- 
tories, charts,  books,  Imperial  decrees,  and  literary  matters  in 
general. 

2.  The  vice-presidents  shall  be  of  two  classes;  namely,  the 
readers,  and  the  expositors  to  his  Majesty  the  Emperor.     In 
each  class  there  shall  be  three  Manchus  and  three  Chinese. 

3.  Besides  these,  the  regular  members  shall  consist  of  three 
classes — namely,  Siuchoan,  Piensieu,  and  Kientao — in  all  of  which 
the  number  is  not  limited.     These,  together  with  the  vice-presi- 
dents, shall  be  charged  with  the  composition  and  compilation  of 
books,  and  with  daily  attendance  at  stated  times  on  the  classic 
studies  of  his  Majesty. 

4.  There  shall  be  a  class  of  candidates  on  probation,  termed 
Shuki  shi,  "  lucky  scholars,"  the  number  not  fixed.     These  shall 
not  be  charged  with  any  specific  duty,  but  shall  prosecute  their 
studies  in  the  schools  attached  to  the  Academy.     They  shall 
study  both  Manchu  and  Chinese.     Their  studies  shall  be  direct- 
ed by  two  professors — one  Manchu  and  one  Chinese — assisted 
by  other  members  below  the  grade  of  readers  and  expositors, 
who  shall  act  as  divisional  tutors.     At  the  expiration  of  three 
years  they  shall  be  tested  as  to  their  ability  in  poetical  composi- 
tion, the  Emperor  in  person  deciding  their  grades,  after  which 
they  shall  be  admitted  to  an  audience ;  those  of  the  first  three 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  13 

grades  being  received  into  full  membership,  and  those  of  the 
fourth  grade,  which  comprises  the  remainder,  being  assigned  to 
posts  in  the  civil  service,  or  retained  for  another  three  years  to 
study  and  be  examined  with  the  next  class. 

5.  There  shall  be  two  recorders — one  Manchu  and  one  Chi- 
nese.    These  shall  be  charged  with  the  sending  and  receiving  of 
documents. 

6.  There  shall  be  two  librarians — one  Manchu  and  one  Chi- 
nese.    These  shall  be  charged  with  the  care  of  the  books  and 
charts. 

7.  There  shall  be  four  proof-readers — two  Manchus  and  two 
Chinese.     These  shall  attend  to  the  revision  and  collation  of 
histories,  memorials,  and  other  literary  compositions. 

8.  There  shall  be  forty-four  clerks — forty  Manchus  and  four 
from  the  Chinese  Banners.    These  shall  be  employed  in  copying 
and  translation. 

9.  The  expositors  at  the  classic  table  (of  the  Emperor)  shall 
be  sixteen  in  number — eight  Manchus  and  eight  Chinese.     The 
Manchus  must  be  officers  who  have  risen  from  the  third  rank  or 
higher.     The  Chinese  also  must  be  of  the  third  rank  or  higher, 
having  risen  from  the  Academy.     These  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  Emperor  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Academy.      The 
classic  feasts  shall  take  place  twice  a  year — namely,  in  the  second 
and  the  eighth  month ;  at  which  time  one  Manchu  and  one 
Chinese  shall  expound  the  Book  of  History,  and  one  Manchu 
and  one  Chinese  shall  expound  the  other  classics,  to  be  selected 
from  a  list  prepared  by  the  Academy.     The  subject  and  sense 
of  the  passages  to  be  treated  on  these  occasions  shall  in  all  cases 
be  arranged  by  consultation  with  the  presidents  of  the  Academy, 
and  laid  before  the  Emperor  for  his  approval.     When  the  Em- 
peror visits  the  "  Palace  of  Literary  Glory,"  these  expositors, 
together  with  the  other  officers,  shall  perform  their  prostrations 
at  the  foot  of  the  steps,  after  which  their  going  in  and  out  shall 
be  according  to  the  form  prescribed  in  the  Code  of  Rites.    When 


14  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

they  shall  have  finished  their  expositions,  they  shall  respectfully 
listen  to  the  discourses  of  the  Emperor. 

10.  The  daily  expositors  shall  be  twenty -eight  Manchus  and 
twelve  Chinese.     They  shall  be  above  the  grade  of  Kientao  and 
below  that  of  president,  and  may  discharge  this  duty  without 
resigning  their  original  offices. 

11.  Prayers   and  sacrificial  addresses   for   several  occasions 
shall  be  drawn  up  by  the  Hanlin  and  submitted  to  the  Emperor 
for  his  approval.    These  occasions  are  the  following :  namely,  at 
the  Altar  of  Heaven ;  the  Ancestral  Temple ;  the  Imperial  Cem- 
eteries; the  Altar  of  Agriculture;  sacrifices  to  mountains,  seas, 
and  lakes,  and  to  the  ancient  sage  Confucius. 

12.  The  Hanlin  shall  respectfully  prepare  honorary  titles  for 
the  dowager  empresses :  they  shall  also  draw  up  patents  of  dig- 
nity for  the  chief  concubines  of  the  late  emperor ;  forms  of  in- 
vestiture for  new  empresses  and  the  chief  concubines  of  new 
emperors ;  patents  of  nobility  for  princes,  dukes,  generals,  and 
for  feudal  states ;  together  with  inscriptions  on  State  seals — all 
of  which  shall  first  be  submitted  for  the  Imperial  approbation. 

13.  The  Hanlin  shall  respectfully  propose  posthumous  titles 
for  deceased  emperors,  together  with  monumental  inscriptions 
and  sacrificial  addresses  for  those  who  are  accorded  the  honor 
of  a  posthumous  title — all  of  which  shall  be  submitted  to  the 
Emperor  for  approval. 

14.  The  presidents  of  the  Hanlin  shall  be  exoffido  vice-presi- 
dents of  the  Bureau  of  Contemporary  History,  in  which  the 
Hanlin  of  subordinate  grades  shall  assist  as  compilers  and  com- 
posers, reverentially  recording  the  sacred  instructions  (of  the 
Emperor). 

15.  Prescribes  the  order  of  attendance  for  the  Hanlin  when 
the  Emperor  appears  in  public  court. 

16.  Prescribes  the  number  and  quality  of  those  of  the  Hanlin 
•who  shall  attend  his  Majesty  during  his  sojourn  at  the  Yuen- 
Ming-Yuen  (Summer  Palace). 


THE  HANLIN  YUAN,  OR  IMPERIAL  ACADEMY.        15 

17.  Provides  that  those  members  of  the  Hanlin  whose  duty 
it  is  to  accompany  his  Majesty  on  his  various  journeys  beyond 
the  capital  shall  be  recommended  by  the  presidents  of  the  Acad- 
emy. 

18.  Provides  that  when  the  Emperor  sends  a  deputy  to  sacri- 
fice to  Confucius,  certain  senior  members  of  the  Academy  shall 
make  offerings  to  the  twelve  chief  disciples  of  the  Sage. 

19.  The  Hanlin,  in  conjunction  with  the  Board  of  Rites, 
shall  copy  out  and  publish  the  best  specimens  of  the  essays  pro- 
duced in  the  provincial  and  metropolitan  examinations. 

20.  Prescribes  the  form  to  be  used  in  reporting  or  recom- 
mending members  for  promotion,  and  provides  that  when  an 
examination  is  held  for  the  selection  of  Imperial  censors,  the 
Piensieu  and  Kientao,  on  recommendation,  may  be  admitted  as 
candidates. 

21.  Regulates  examinations  for  the  admission  of  probationary 
members. 

22.  Admits  probationers,  after  three  years  of  study,  to  an  ex- 
amination for  places  in  the  Academy  or  official  posts  elsewhere. 

23.  Provides  for  examinations  of  regular  members  in  presence 
of  the  Emperor,  at  uncertain  times,  in  order  to  prevent  their  re- 
lapse into  idleness. 

24.  Provides  for  the  promotion   of  members  who  are  em- 
ployed as  instructors  or  probationers. 

Such  is  the  official  account  of  the  Hanlin  as  at  present  con- 
stituted ;  but  what  information  does  it  convey  ?  After  all  we 
have  done  in  the  way  of  explanation  in  connection  with  a  rather 
free  translation,  it  still  remains  a  confused  mass  of  titles  and 
ceremonies,  utterly  devoid  of  any  principle  of  order ;  and  with- 
out the  help  of  collateral  information,  much  of  it  would  be  alto- 
gether unintelligible.  Interrogate  it  as  to  the  number  of  mem- 
bers, the  qualifications  required  for  membership,  the  duration  of 
membership,  the  manner  of  obtaining  their  seats  (a  term  which 
must  be  used  metaphorically  of  an  association  in  which  all  but 


16  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

a  few  are  expected  to  stand),  and  it  is  silent  as  the  Sphinx. 
Should  one,  with  a  view  to  satisfying  curiosity  on  the  first  point, 
attempt  to  reckon  up  the  number  of  classes  or  divisions,  to  say 
nothing  of  individuals,  the  number  being  in  some  cases  purpose- 
ly indefinite,  he  would  certainly  fail  of  success.  Some  who  are 
enumerated  in  those  divisions  are  official  employes  of  the  society, 
but  not  members ;  and  yet  there  is  nothing  in  the  text  to  indi- 
cate the  fact :  e.  g.,  the  proof-readers  are  Hanlins,  the  copyists 
and  translators  are  not ;  the  librarians  are  Hanlins,  the  recorders 
are  not.  We  shall  endeavor  briefly  to  elucidate  these  several 
points. 

Unlike  the  academies  of  Europe,  which  are  voluntary  associa- 
tions for  the  advancement  of  learning  under  royal  or  imperial 
patronage,  the  Hanlin  is  a  body  of  civil  functionaries,  a  govern- 
ment organ,  an  integral  part  of  the  machinery  of  the  State :  its 
mainspring,  as  that  of  every  other  portion,  is  in  the  throne.  Its 
members  do  not  seek  admission  from  love  of  learning,  but  for 
the  distinction  it  confers,  and  especially  as  a  passport  to  lucra- 
tive employment.  They  are  consequently  in  a  state  of  perpetual 
transition,  spending  from  six  to  ten  years  in  attendance  at  the 
Academy,  and  then  going  into  the  provinces  as  triennial  exam- 
iners, as  superintendents  of  education,  or  even  in  civil  or  military 
employments  which  have  no  special  relation  to  letters.  In  all 
these  situations  they  proudly  retain  the  title  of  member  of  the 
Imperial  Academy  ;  and,  in  their  memorials  to  the  throne,  one 
may  sometimes  see  it  placed  above  that  of  provincial  treasurer 
or  judge. 

There  are,  moreover,  several  yamens  in  the  capital  that  are 
manned  almost  exclusively  from  the  members  of  the  Hanlin. 
Of  these  the  principal  are  the  chan-shih-fu  and  the  ch'i-cku-ch'u ; 
both  of  which  are,  in  fact,  nothing  more  than  appendages  of  the 
Academy.  The  former,  the  name  of  which  affords  no  hint  of 
its  functions,  appears  to  bear  some  such  relation  to  the  heir- 
apparent  as  the  Hanlin  does  to  the  Emperor.  The  beggarly 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  17 

building  in  which  its  official  meetings  are  held  may  be  seen  on 
the  banks  of  the  canal  opposite  to  the  British  Legation.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  regarded  as  a  highly  aristocratic  body,  and  gives 
employment  to  a  score  or  so  of  Academicians.  The  other, 
which  may  be  described  as  the  Bureau  of  Daily  Record,  employs 
some  twenty  more  of  the  Hanlins  in  the  capacity  of  Boswells  to 
the  reigning  Emperor,  their  duty  being  to  preserve  a  minute 
record  of  all  his  words  and  actions. 

Among  the  Imperial  censors,  who  form  a  distinct  tribunal,  a 
majority  perhaps  are  taken  from  the  ranks  of  the  Hanlin,  but 
they  are  not  exclusively  so ;  while  the  higher  ranks  of  the  Han- 
lin, without  being  connected  with  the  censorate,  are  ex  officio 
counsellors  to  his  Majesty.  Of  those  whose  names  are  on  the 
rolls  as  active  members  of  the  Academy  in  regular  attendance 
on  its  meetings,  the  number  does  not  exceed  three  or  four  score; 
though  on  great  occasions,  such  as  the  advent  of  an  emperor,  the 
ex-members  who  are  within  reach  are  called  in  and  swell  the 
number  to  twice  or  thrice  that  figure.  Besides  these  are  the 
probationers  or  candidates,  to  the  number  of  a  hundred  or  more, 
who  pursue  their  studies  for  three  years  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Academy,  and  then  stand  examination  for  membership.  If 
successful,  they  take  their  places  with  the  rank  and  file  of  the 
Imperial  scribes ;  otherwise,  they  are  assigned  posts  in  the  civil 
service,  such  as  those  of  sub -prefect,  district  magistrate,  etc., 
carrying  with  them  in  every  position  the  distinction  of  having 
been  connected,  for  however  brief  a  time,  with  the  Imperial 
Academy.  Without  counting  those  rejected  candidates,  whose 
claim  to  the  title  is  more  than  doubtful,  the  actual  and  passed 
members  probably  do  not  fall  short  of  five  hundred. 

The  qualifications  for  membership  are  two — natural  talent 
and  rare  acquisitions  in  all  the  departments  of  Chinese  scholar- 
ship ;  but  of  these  we  shall  treat  more  at  length  hereafter.  The 
new  members  are  not  admitted  by  vote  of  the  association,  nor 
appointed  by  the  will  of  their  Imperial  master.  The  seats  in 


CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

this  Olympus  are  put  up  to  competition,  and,  as  in  the  Hindoo 
mythology,  the  gifted  aspirant,  though  without  name  or  influ- 
ence, and  in  spite  of  opposition,  may  win  the  immortal  amreet. 
None  enter  as  the  result  of  capricious  favor,  and  no  one  is  ex- 
cluded in  consequence  of  unfounded  prejudice. 

The  Hanlin  Yuan  has  not,  therefore,  like  the  Institute  of 
France,  a  long  list  of  illustrious  names  who  acquire  additional 
distinction  from  having  been  rejected  or  overlooked ;  neither 
does  it  suffer  from  lampoons  such  as  that  which  a  disappointed 
poet  fixed  on  his  own  tombstone  at  the  expense  of  the  French 
Academy — 

.  "  Ci-git  Piron,  qui  ne  f  ut  rien, 
Pas  meme  academicien." 

In  the  Chinese  Academy  the  newly  initiated  has  the  proud  con- 
sciousness that  he  owes  everything  to  himself,  and  nothing  to  the 
complaisance  of  his  associates  or  the  patronage  of  his  superiors. 
Of  the  duties  of  the  Hanlin,  these  official  regulations  afford 
us  a  better  idea — indicating  each  line  of  intellectual  activity, 
from  the  selection  of  fancy  names  for  people  in  high  position 
up  to  the  conducting  of  provincial  examinations  and  the  writing 
of  national  histories ;  but  the  advancement  of  science  is  not 
among  them.  They  do  nothing  to  extend  the  boundaries  of 
human  knowledge,  simply  because  they  are  not  aware  that  after 
the  achievements  of  Confucius  and  the  ancient  sages  any  new 
•world  remains  to  be  conquered.  Towards  the  close  of  the  last 
year  the  Emperor,  by  special  decree,  referred  to  the  Academy 
the  responsibility  of  proposing  honorific  titles  for  the  Empress- 
dowager  and  the  Empress-mother.  The  result  was  the  pair  of 
euphonious  pendants,  K*angyi  and  Kangking,  with  which  the 
Imperial  ladies  were  decorated  on  retiring  from  the  regency ; 
and  we  are  left  to  imagine  the  anxious  deliberations,  the  labori- 
ous search  for  precedents,  the  minute  comparison  of  the  histori- 
cal and  poetical  allusions  involved  in  each  title,  before  the  learned 
body  were  able  to  arrive  at  a  decision. 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  19 

The  composition  of  prayers  to  be  used  by  his  Majesty  or  his 
deputies  on  sundry  occasions,  and  the  writing  of  inscriptions  for 
the  temples  of  various  divinities,  in  acknowledgment  of  services, 
are  among  the  lighter  tasks  of  the  Hanlin.  They  are  not,  how- 
ever, like  that  above  referred  to,  of  rare  occurrence.  Ambitious 
of  anything  that  can  confer  distinction  on  their  respective  local- 
ities, the  people  of  numerous  districts  petition  the  throne  to 
honor  the  temple  where  they  worship  by  the  gift  of  an  Imperial 
inscription.  They  ascertain  that  some  time  within  the  past 
twenty  years  the  divinity  there  worshipped  has  .interfered  to 
prevent  a  swollen  river  from  bursting  its  banks ;  to  avert  a 
plague  of  locusts,  or  arrest  a  protracted  drought ;  or,  by  a  noc- 
turnal display  of  spectral  armies,  to  drive  away  a  horde  of  rebels. 
They  report  the  facts  in  the  case  to  their  magistrates,  who  verify 
them,  and  forward  the  application  to  the  Emperor,  who  in  turn 
directs  the  members  of  the  Hanlin  to  write  the  desired  inscrip- 
tion. Cases  of  this  kind  abound  in  the  Peking  gazette ;  one  of 
those  best  known  to  foreigners  being  that  of  Sze-tai-wang  at 
Tientsin,  whose  merit  in  checking,  under  the  avatar  of  a  serpent, 
the  disastrous  floods  of  1871  obtained  from  the  Emperor  the 
honor  of  a  commemorative  tablet  written  by  the  doctors  of  the 
Hanlin. 

If  to  these  we  add  the  scrolls  and  tablets  written  by  Imperial 
decree  for  schools  and  charitable  institutions  throughout  the 
Empire,  we  must  confess  that  the  Hanlin  Yuan  might  earn  for 
itself  the  title  of  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  a  sense  somewhat 
different  from  that  in  which  the  term  is  employed  in  the  West- 
ern World.  Indeed,  so  disproportionate  is  the  space  allotted  in  the 
constitution  to  these  petty  details  that  the  reader,  judging  from 
that  document  alone,  would  be  liable  to  infer  that  the  Acade- 
micians were  seldom  burdened  with  any  more  serious  employ- 
ment. But  let  him  go  into  one  of  the  great  libraries  connected 
with  the  court  (unhappily  not  yet  accessible  to  the  foreign  stu- 
dent), or  even  to  the  great  book-stores  of  the  Chinese  city,  and 


20  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

he  will  learn  at  a  glance  that  the  Hanlin  is  not  a  mere  piece  of 
Oriental  pageantry.  Let  him  ask  for  the  Book  of  Odes;  the 
salesman  hands  him  an  Imperial  edition  in  twenty  volumes,  with 
notes  and  illustrations  by  the  doctors  of  the  Hanlin.  If  he  in- 
quire for  the  Book  of  Rites,  or  any  of  the  thirteen  canonical 
books,  the  work  is  shown  him  in  the  same  elegant  type,  equally 
voluminous  in  extent,  and  executed  by  the  hands  of  the  same 
inexhaustible  editors.  Then  there  are  histories  without  num- 
ber; next  to  the  classics  in  dignity,  and  far  exceeding  them  in 
extent. 

If  the  poems  of  India,  such  as  the  Mahabharat,  in  length  out- 
measuring  half  a  score  of  Iliads,  suggest  the  idea  of  the  infinite, 
the  histories  of  China  are  adapted  to  produce  a  similar  impres- 
sion. There  are  in  the  capital,  at  this  present  time,  no  fewer 
than  four  bureaus  or  colleges  of  history,  constantly  occupied, 
not,  as  might  be  supposed,  with  the  history  of  other  countries 
and  distant  ages,  but  with  the  events  of  the  present  reign  and 
those  of  its  immediate  predecessor.  These  are  all  conducted  by 
members  of  the  Hanlin;  and  the  scale  on  which  they  execute 
their  tasks  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  Bureau  of 
Military  History  recently  reported  the  completion  of  a  portion 
of  its  labors  in  seven  hundred  and  twenty  books,  or  about  three 
hundred  and  sixty  volumes.  These  only  cover  the  Taiping  and 
Nienfei  rebellions,  leaving  the  Mahometan  and  foreign  wars  of 
the  last  seventeen  years  to  be  spun  out  probably  to  an  equal 
extent. 

Here  is  a  paragraph  from  the  instructions  of  one  of  these 
bureaus,  which,  in  respect  to  the  laborious  minuteness  which 
they  exact,  may  be  taken  as  a  sample  of  the  whole : 

"  They  (the  scribes)  are  to  take  note  of  the  down-sitting  and 
uprising  of  his  Majesty,  and  to  keep  a  record  of  his  every  word 
and  action.  They  are  to  attend  his  Majesty  when  he  holds 
court  and  gives  audience ;  when  he  visits  the  Altar  of  Heaven 
or  the  Temple  of  Ancestors ;  when  he  holds  a  feast  of  the  clas- 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  21 

sics,  or  ploughs  the  sacred  field ;  when  he  visits  the  schools  or 
'reviews  the  troops ;  when  he  bestows  entertainments,  celebrates 
a  military  triumph,  or  decides  the  fate  of  criminals.  They  must 
follow  the  Emperor  in  his  hunting  excursions,  and  during  his 
sojourn  at  his  country  palace.  They  will  hear  the  Imperial 
voice  with  reverence,  and  record  its  utterances  with  care,  append- 
ing to  every  entry  the  date  and  name  of  the  writer.  At  the 
end  of  every  month  these  records  shall  be  sealed  up  and  deposit- 
ed in  a  desk,  and  at  the  close  of  the  year  transferred  to  the 
custody  of  the  Inner  Council." 

Besides  these  dynastic  histories,  there  are  topographical  his- 
tories of  provinces,  prefectures,  districts,  and  even  of  towns  and 
villages,  in  number  and  extent  to  which  we  have  no  parallel. 
In  most  of  these  the  government  takes  a  direct  interest,  and  as 
far  as  possible  they  are  edited  by  members  of  the  Hanlin ;  e.  g., 
a  supplement  is  now  being  made  at  Paotingfu  to  the  history 
of  the  province  of  Chihli,  bringing  it  through  the  troubled 
days  of  the  Taiping  rebellion  and  foreign  invasion,  down  to  the 
present  time.  It  is  executed  under  the  superintendence  of  a 
Hanlin  Piensieu,  whose  services  were  not  obtained  without  a 
special  application  to  the  throne  by  the  Viceroy  Li  Hung  Chang. 

In  addition  to  work  of  this  kind,  which  is  constant  as  the 
stream  of  time,  the  Hanlin  supplies  writers  and  editors  for  all  the 
literary"  enterprises  of  the  Emperor.  Some  of  these  are  so  vast 
that  it  is  safe  to  say  no  people  would  undertake  them  but  those 
who  erected  the  Great  Wall  and  excavated  the  Grand  Canal ;  nor 
would  China  have  had  the  courage  to  face  them  had  she  not  kept 
on  foot  as  a  permanent  institution  a  standing  army  of  learned 
writers. 

Two  of  these  colossal  enterprises  distinguish  the  brilliant 
prime  of  the  present  dynasty ;  while  a  third,  of  proportions 
still  more  huge,  dates  back  to  the  second  reign  of  the  Mings. 
This  last  is  the  Yung-lo-ta-tien,  a  cyclopaedic  digest  of  the  Im- 
perial library,  which  at  that  time  contained  300,000  volumes. 


22  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

There  were  employed  in  the  task  2169  clerks  and  copyists,  un- 
der the  direction  of  a  commission  consisting  of  three  presidents, 
five  vice-presidents,  and  twenty  sub-directors.  The  work,  when 
completed,  contained  22,937  books,  or  about  half  that  number 
of  volumes.  It  was  never  printed  as  a  whole,  and  two  of  the 
three  manuscript  copies,  together  with  about  a  tenth  part  of  the 
third,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  convulsions  that  attended 
the  overthrow  of  the  Mings. 

In  the  reign  of  Kanghi  (latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury) a  similar  compilation  was  executed,  numbering  6000  vol- 
umes, and  beautifully  printed  on  movable  copper  types,  with  the 
title  of  T'u-shu-chi-citeng. 

About  a  century  later,  under  Kienlung,  a  still  larger  collec- 
tion, intended  to  supplement  the  former,  and  preserve  all  that 
was  most  valuable  in  the  extant  literature,  was  printed  on  mov- 
able wooden  types  with  the  title  of  Sze-k'u-ch'uen-sku.  These 
two  collections  reproduce  a  great  part  of  the  preceding ;  never- 
theless, great  pains  have  been  taken  to  copy  out  and  preserve 
the  original  work.  A  commission  of  members  of  the  Hanlin 
was  appointed  for  this  purpose  by  Kienlung,  and  a  copy  of  the 
work,  it  is  said,  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Hanlin  library.  In 
this  connection  we  may  mention  two  other  great  works  executed 
under  the  Mings,  which  have  been  reproduced  by  the  present 
dynasty  in  an  abridged  or  modified  form.  While  the  codifica- 
tion of  the  laws  found  in  Yunglo  a  Chinese  Justinian,  it  found 
its  Tribonians  among  the  doctors  of  the  Academy.  The  En- 
cyclopedia of  Philosophy,  compiled  by  the  Hanlin  under  Yunglo, 
the  second  of  the  Mings,  was  abridged  by  the  Hanlin,  under 
Kanghi,  the  second  of  the  Tsings.  A  still  more  important  labor 
of  the  Hanlin,  performed  by  order  of  the  last-named  illustrious 
ruler,  was  the  dictionary  which  bears  his  name — a  labor  more  in 
keeping  with  its  character  as  a  literary  corporation. 

Thiers  speaks  of  the  French  Academy  as  having  la  mission  a 
regler  la  marche  de  la  langue.  It  did  this  by  publishing  its  fa- 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  23 

mous  dictionary  ;  and  about  the  same  time  the  members  of  the 
Ilanlin  were  performing  a  similar  task  for  the  language  of 
China,  by  the  preparation  of  the  great  dictionary  of  Kanghi — a 
work  which  stands  much  higher  as  an  authority  than  does  the 
Dictionnaire  de  F  Academic  J^ranpaise.  A  small  work,  not  un- 
worthy of  mention  in  connection  with  these  grave  labors,  is  the 
Sacred  Edict,  which  goes  under  the  name  of  Kanghi.  It  is 
not,  however,  the  composition  of  either  Kanghi  or  Yung-cheng, 
but  purely  a  production  of  Ilanlin  pencils.  In  the  Memoirs 
of  the  Academy  we  find  a  decree  assigning  the  task  and  pre- 
scribing the  mode  of  performance : 

"'Taking,'  says  the  Emperor,  'the  sixteen  edicts  (or  maxims 
of  seven  words  each)  of  our  sacred  ancestor  surnamed  the  Be- 
nevolent for  a  basis,  we  desire  to  expand  and  illustrate  their 
meaning,  for  the  instruction  of  our  soldiers  and  people.  Let 
the  members  of  the  Hanlin  compose  an  essay,  of  between  five 
and  six  hundred  characters,  on  each  text,  in  a  plain  and  lucid 
style,  shunning  alike  the  errors  of  excessive  polish  and  rusticity. 
Let  the  same  text  be  given  to  eight  or  nine  persons,  each  of 
whom  will  prepare  a  discourse,  and  hand  it  in  in  a  sealed  enve- 
lope.' " 

From  this  it  appears  that  the  sixteen  elegant  discourses 
which  compose  the  body  of  that  work  are  selections  from  over 
a  hundred — the  picked  performances  of  picked  men. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  Manchu  dynasty,  the  Hanlin  were 
much  engaged  in  superintending  the  translation  of  Chinese 
works  into  Manchu,  a  language  now  so  little  understood  by  the 
Tartars  of  Peking  that  those  voluminous  versions  have  almost 
ceased  to  be  of  any  practical  value.  Under  the  present  reign 
the  learned  doctors  have  been  working  somewhat  in  a  different 
direction,  showing  that  the  Chinese  are  not  so  incapable  of  in- 
novation as  is  usually  supposed.  A  minority  reign  naturally 
suggested  the  want  of  a  royal  road  to  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge ;  our  Hanlin  doctors  were  accordingly  directed  to  supply 


24  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

his  Majesty  with  copies  of  History  made  easy  and  the  Classics 
made  easy.  The  mode  of  making  easy  was  a  careful  rendering 
into  the  Mandarin  or  court  dialect — a  style  which  these  admira- 
ble doctors  disdain  as  much  as  the  mediaeval  scholars  of  Europe 
did  the  vernacular  of  their  day.  May  we  not  hope  that  these 
works,  after  educating  the  Emperor,  will,  like  those  prepared  by 
the  Jesuits  in  usum  Delphini,  be  brought  to  the  light  for  the  in- 
struction of  his  people  ? 

As  it  is  intended  here  to  indicate  the  variety  rather  than  the 
extent  of  the  literary  labors  of  the  Hanlin,  these  remarks  would 
be  incomplete  if  they  did  not  refer  to  their  poetry.  They  are 
all  poets ;  each  a  laureate,  devoting  his  talents  to  the  glorifica- 
tion of  his  Imperial  patron.  Swift  said  of  an  English  laureate, 

"  Young  must  torture  his  invention 
To  flatter  knaves,  or  lose  a  pension." 

In  China  the  office  is  not  held  on  such  a  condition.  Sage  em- 
perors have  been  known  to  strike  out  with  their  own  pen  the 
finest  compliments  offered  them  by  their  official  bards.  Kien- 
lung,  as  we  have  seen,  felt  it  necessary  to  warn  the  Hanlin 
against  the  prevailing  vice  of  poets  and  pensioners.  In  China 
poetry  is  put  to  a  better  purpose ;  Imperial  decrees  and  official 
proclamations  being  often  expressed  in  verse,  for  the  same  reason 
that  induced  Solon  to  borrow  the  aid  of  verse  in  the  promulga- 
tion of  his  laws.  Didactic  compositions  in  verse  are  without 
number,  and  for  the  most  part  as  dry  as  Homer's  catalogue  of 
the  fleet.  A  popular  cyclopaedia,  for  instance,  in  over  a  score 
of  volumes,  treats  of  all  imaginable  subjects  in  a  kind  of  irregu- 
lar verse  called  fu. 

Employed  as  scribes  and  editors,  it  would  be  too  much  to  ex- 
pect that  the  Hanlin  should  distinguish  themselves  for  original- 
ity. It  is  a  rare  thing  for  an  original  work  to  spring  from  the 
brain  of  an  Academician.  In  imitation  of  Confucius,  they  might 
inscribe  over  their  door,  "  We  edit,  but  we  do  not  compose." 

"  On  entering  this  hall,"  said  M.  Thiers,  taking  his  seat  in  the 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  25 

French  Academy  forty  years  ago,  "  I  feel  the  proudest  recollec- 
tions of  our  national  history  awakening  within  me.  Here  it  is 
that  Corneille,  Bossuet,  Voltaire,  and  Montesquieu,  one  after  an- 
other, came  and  took  their  seats ;  and  here  more  recently  have 
sat  Laplace  and  Cuvier.  .  .  .  Three  great  men,  Laplace,  La- 
grange,  and  Cuvier,  opened  the  century ;  a  numerous  band  of 
young  and  ardent  intellects  have  followed  in  their  wake.  Some 
study  the  primeval  history  of  our  planet,  thereby  to  illustrate 
the  history  of  its  inhabitants ;  others,  impelled  by  the  love  of 
humanity,  strive  to  subjugate  the  elements  in  order  to  ameliorate 
the  condition  of  man ;  still  others  study  all  ages  and  traverse  all 
countries,  in  hopes  of  adding  something  to  the  treasures  of  in- 
tellectual and  moral  philosophy.  .  .  .  Standing  in  the  midst  of 
you,  the  faithful  and  constant  friends  of  science,  permit  me  to 
exclaim,  happy  are  those  who  take  part  in  the  noble  labors  of 
this  age !" 

In  this  passage  we  have  a  true  portraiture  of  the  spirit  that 
animates  the  peerage  of  the  Western  intellect ;  they  lead  the  age 
in  every  path  of  improvement,  and  include  in  their  number  those 
whom  a  viceroy  of  Egypt  felicitously  described,  not  as  peers,  but 
as  les  fetes  couronnees  de  la  science.  How  different  from  the 
drowsy  routine  which  prevails  in  the  chief  tribunal  of  Chinese 
learning !  Of  all  this  the  Chinese  Academician  has  no  concep- 
tion ;  he  is  an  anachronism,  his  country  is  an  anachronism,  as 
far  in  the  rear  of  the  world's  great  march  as  were  the  people  of 
a  secluded  valley,  mentioned  in  Chinese  literature,  who,  finding 
there  an  asylum  from  trouble  and  danger,  declined  intercourse 
with  the  rest  of  mankind,  and  after  the  lapse  of  many  centuries 
imagined  that  the  dynasty  of  Han  .was  still  upon  the  throne. 

It  is  doing  our  Hanlin  a  species  of  injustice  to  compare  him 
with  the  Academicians,  or  even  with  the  commonalty  of  the 
West,  in  a  scientific  point  of  view ;  for  science  is  just  the  thing 
which  he  does  not  profess,  and  that  general  information  which 
is  regarded  as  indispensable  by  the  average  intelligence  of 


26  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

Christendom  is  to  the  Hanlin  a  foreign  currency,  which  has  no 
recognized  value  in  the  market  of  his  country;  nevertheless,  we 
shall  proceed  to  interrogate  him  as  to  his  information  on  a  few 
points,  merely  for  the  sake  of  bringing  to  view  the  actual  con- 
dition of  the  educated  mind  of  China. 

In  history  he  can  recite  with  familiar  ease  the  dynastic  records 
of  his  own  country  for  thousands  of  years ;  but  he  never  heard 
of  Alexander  or  Ca3sar  or  the  first  Napoleon.  Of  the  third 
Napoleon  he  may  have  learned  something  from  a  faint  echo  of 
the  catastrophe  at  Sedan,  certainly  not  from  the  missions  of 
Burlingame  or  Ch'unghau — events  that  are  yet  too  recent  to 
have  reached  the  ears  of  these  students  of  antiquity,  who,  what- 
ever their  faults,  are  not  chargeable  with  being  rerum  novarum 
avidi. 

In  geography  he  is  not  at  home  even  among  the  provinces  of 
China  proper,  and  becomes  quite  bewildered  when  he  goes  to 
the  north  of  the  Great  Wall.  Of  Columbus  and  the  New  World 
he  is  profoundly  ignorant,  not  knowing  in  what  part  of  the  globe 
lies  the  America  of  which  he  may  have  heard  as  one  among  the 
Treaty  Powers.  With  the  names  of  England  and  France  he  is 
better  acquainted,  as  they  have  left  their  record  in  opened  ports 
and  ruined  palaces.  Russia  he  thinks  of  as  a  semi-barbarous 
state,  somewhere  among  the  Mongolian  tribes,  which  formerly 
brought  tribute,  and  was  vanquished  in  conflict — her  people  be- 
ing led  in  triumph  by  the  prowess  of  Kanghi.* 

In  astronomy  he  maintains  the  dignity  of  our  native  globe  as 
the  centre  of  the  universe,  as  his  own  country  is  the  middle  of 
the  habitable  earth — a  conviction  in  which  he  is  confirmed  by 
the  authority  of  those  learned  Jesuits  who  persisted  in  teaching 
the  Ptolemaic  system  three  centuries  after  the  time  of  Coperni- 
cus. Of  longitude  and  latitude  he  has  no  conception ;  and  re- 


*  The  Siberian  garrison  of  Albazin  were  brought  to  Peking,  where  their 
descendants  still  reside. 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  27 

fuses  even  to  admit  the  globular  form  of  the  earth,  because  an 
ancient  tradition  asserts  that  "heaven  is  round  and  the  earth 
square."  To  him  the  stars  are  shining  characters  on  the  book 
of  fate,  and  eclipses  portents  of  approaching  calamity. 

In  zoology  he  believes  that  tigers  plunging  into  the  sea  are 
transformed  into  sharks,  and  that  sparrows  by  undergoing  the 
same  baptism  are  converted  into  oysters ;  for  the  latter  meta- 
morphosis is  gravely  asserted  in  canonical  books,  and  the  former 
is  a  popular  notion  which  he  cares  not  to  question.  Arithmetic 
he  scorns  as  belonging  to  shopkeepers ;  and  mechanics  he  dis- 
dains on  account  of  its  relation  to  machinery  and  implied  con- 
nection with  handicraft. 

Of  general  physics  he  nevertheless  holds  an  ill-defined  theory, 
which  has  for  its  basis  the  dual  forces  that  generated  the  uni- 
verse, and  the  five  elements  which  profess  to  comprehend  all 
forms  of  matter,  but  omit  the  atmosphere.  Of  the  nature  of 
these  elements  his  text-book  gives  the  following  luminous  expo- 
sition :  namely,  that  "  the  nature  of  water  is  to  run  downward ; 
the  nature  of  fire  is  to  flame  upward ;  the  nature  of  wood  is  to 
be  either  crooked  or  straight ;  the  nature  of  metals  is  to  be  pli- 
able, and  subject  to  change ;  the  nature  of  earth  is  to  serve  the 
purposes  of  agriculture."  * 

So  weighty  is  the  information  contained  in  these  sentences 
that  he  accepts  them  as  a  special  revelation,  the  bed-rock  of 
human  knowledge,  beneath  which  it  would  be  useless,  if  not 
profane,  to  attempt  to  penetrate.  It  never  occurs  to  our  phi- 
losopher to  inquire  why  water  flows  downward,  and  why  fire 
ascends;  to  his  mind  both  are  ultimate  facts.  On  this  foun- 
dation human  sagacity  has  erected  the  pantheon  of  universal 
science.  This  it  has  done  by  connecting  the  five  elements  with 
the  five  planets,  the  five  senses,  the  five  musical  tones,  the  five 
colors,  and  the  five  great  mountain-ranges  of  the  earth ;  the 

*  From  the  Hungfan  in  the  Shuking. 


28  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

quintal  classification  originating  in  the  remarkable  observation 
that  man  has  five  fingers  on  his  hand,  and  setting  forth  the  har- 
mony of  nature  as  a  connected  whole  with  a  beautiful  simplicity 
that  one  seeks  for  in  vain  in  the  Kosmos  of  Humboldt. 

This  system,  which  our  Hanlin  accepts,  though  he  does  not 
claim  the  merit  of  having  originated  it,  is  not  a  mere  fanciful 
speculation ;  it  is  a  practical  doctrine  skilfully  adapted  to  the 
uses  of  human  life.  In  medicine  it  enables  him  to  adapt  his 
remedies  to  the  nature  of  the  disease.  When  he  has  contracted 
a  fever  on  shipboard  or  in  a  dwelling  that  has  a  wooden  floor, 
he  perceives  at  once  the  origin  of  his  malady,  or  his  physician 
informs  him  that  "  wood  produces  fire ;"  earth  is  wanted  to  re- 
store the  balance,  i.  e.  life  on  shore,  or  outdoor  exercise. 

In  the  conduct  of  affairs  it  enables  him  to  get  the  lucky  stars 
in  his  favor,  and,  through  the  learned  labors  of  the  Board  of 
Astronomy,  it  places  in  his  hands  a  guide-book  which  informs 
him  when  he  should  commence  or  terminate  an  enterprise,  when 
he  may  safely  venture  abroad,  and  when  it  would  be  prudent  to 
remain  at  home.  It  enables  him  to  calculate  futurity,  and  obtain 
the  advantages  of  a  kind  of  scientia  media,  or  conditional  fore- 
knowledge ;  to  know  how  to  arrange  a  marriage  so  as  to  secure 
felicity  according  to  the  horoscope  of  the  parties ;  and  ascertain 
where  to  locate  the  dwellings  of  the  living  or  the  resting-places 
of  the  dead,  in  order  to  insure  to  their  families  the  largest 
amount  of  prosperity. 

These  occult  sciences  the  Hanlin  believes  implicitly,  but  he 
does  not  profess  to  understand  them — contented  in  such  matters 
to  be  guided  by  the  opinion  of  professional  experts.  A  Saddu- 
cee  in  creed  and  an  epicure  in  practice,  the  comforts  of  the  pres- 
ent life  constitute  his  highest  idea  of  happiness ;  yet  he  never 
thinks  of  devising  any  new  expedient  for  promoting  the  physi- 
cal well-being  of  his  people.  Like  some  of  the  philosophers  of 
our  Western  antiquity,  he  would  feel  degraded  by  occupation 
with  anything  lower  than  politics  and  ethics,  or  less  refined  than 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,  OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  29 

poetry  and  rhetoric.  "  Seneca,"  says  Lord  Macaulay,  "  labors  to 
clear  Democritus  from  the  disgraceful  imputation  of  having 
made  the  first  arch ;  and  Anacharsis  from  the  charge  of  having 
contrived  the  potter's  wheel."  No  such  apologist  is  required  for 
our  doctors  of  the  Hanlin,  inasmuch  as  no  such  impropriety  was 
ever  laid  to  their  charge. 

The  noble  motto  of  the  French  Institute,  Invenit  et  perfecit,  is 
utterly  alien  from  the  spirit  and  aims  of  the  Academicians  of 
China.  With  them  the  Golden  Age  is  in  the  remote  past ;  every- 
thing for  the  good  of  human  society  has  been  anticipated  by  the 
wisdom  of  the  ancients. 

"  Omnia  jam  ferme  mortalibus  esse  parata." 

Nothing  remains  for  them  to  do  but  to  walk  in  the  footsteps  of 
their  remote  ancestors. 

Having  thus  subjected  our  Academician  to  an  examination  in 
the  elements  of  a  modern  education,  we  must  again  caution  our 
readers  against  taking  its  result  as  a  gauge  of  mental  power  or 
actual  culture.  In  knowledge,  according  to  our  standard,  he  is  a 
child  ;  in  intellectual  force,  a  giant.  A  veteran  athlete,  the  victor 
of  a  hundred  conflicts,  his  memory  is  prodigious,  his  apprehen- 
sion quick,  and  his  taste  in  literary  matters  exquisite. 

"  It  is  a  dangerous  error,"  says  an  erudite  editor  of  Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  "  to  regard  the  cultivation  of  our  faculties  as  sub- 
ordinate to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  instead  of  knowledge 
being  subordinate  to  the  cultivation  of  our  faculties.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  error,  those  sciences  which  afford  a  greater  num- 
ber of  more  certain  facts  have  been  deemed  superior  in  utility 
to  those  which  bestow  a  higher  cultivation  on  the  higher  facul- 
ties of  the  mind." 

The  peculiar  discipline  under  which  the  Hanlin  is  educated, 
with  its  advantages  and  defects,  we  shall  indicate  in  another 
place.  Before  quitting  this  branch  of  the  subject,  we  may  re- 
mark, however,  that  its  result  as  witnessed  in  the  Hanlin  is  not, 


30  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

as  generally  supposed,  a  feeble,  superficial  polish  which  unfits  its 
recipient  for  the  duties  of  practical  life ;  on  the  contrary,  mem- 
bership in  the  Hanlin  is  avowedly  a  preparation  for  the  dis- 
charge of  political  functions,  a  stepping-stone  to  the  highest 
offices  in  the  State.  The  Academician  is  not  restricted  to  func- 
tions that  partake  of  a  literary  character;  he  may  be  a  viceroy 
as  well  as  a  provincial  examiner;  a  diplomatic  minister  as  well 
as  a  rhymester  of  the  court. 

In  glancing  over  the  long  catalogue  of  the  academic  Legion 
of  Honor,  one  is  struck  by  the  large  proportion  of  names  that 
have  become  eminent  in  the  history  of  their  country. 

We  have  had  occasion  more  than  once  in  the  preceding  pages 
to  refer  to  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy.  These  records,  un- 
fortunately, extend  back  no  further  than  the  accession  of  the 
present  dynasty,  in  1644;  and  they  terminate  with  1801,  com- 
prising only  a  little  more  than  one  and  a  half  of  the  twelve 
centuries  of  the  society's  existence.  Published  under  Imperial 
auspices  in  thirty-two  thin  volumes,  they  are  so  divided  that  the 
books  or  sections  amount  to  the  cabalistic  number  sixty-four, 
the  square  of  the  number  of  the  original  diagrams  which  form 
the  basis  of  the  Yih-king,  the  national  Book  of  Divination. 

The  first  thing  that  strikes  us  on  opening  these  pages  is  the 
spirit  of  imperialism  with  which  they  appear  to  be  saturated. 
The  transactions  of  his  Majesty  constitute  the  chief  subject ; 
the  performances  of  the  members  are  mentioned  only  incident- 
ally ;  and  the  whole  association  is  exhibited  in  the  character  of 
an  elaborate  system  of  belts  and  satellites  purposely  adjusted 
to  reflect  the  splendor  of  a  central  luminary.  Cast  your  eye 
over  the  table  of  contents,  and  see  with  what  relief  this  idea 
stands  out  as  a  controlling  principle  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
work. 

The  first  two  books  are  devoted  to  what  are  called  Sheng 
Yu,  Holy  Edicts,  i.  e.  expressions  of  the  Imperial  mind  in  regard 
to  the  affairs  of  the  society  in  any  manner,  however  informal. 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OB    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  31 

Six  books  arc  given  to  T'ien-chang,  or  Celestial  Rhetoric,  i.  e. 
productions  of  the  vermilion  pencil  in  prose  and  verse.  Eight 
books  record  the  imposing  ceremonies  connected  with  Imperial 
visits;  six  books  commemorate  the  marks  of  Imperial  favor 
bestowed  on  members  of  the  Academy ;  sixteen  of  the  remain- 
ing forty-two  are  occupied  with  a  catalogue  of  those  members 
who  have  been  honored  with  appointments  to  serve  in  the  Im- 
perial presence,  or  with  special  commissions  of  other  kinds.  In 
the  residuary  twenty-six  we  should  expect  to  find  specimens  of 
the  proper  work  of  the  Academy,  and  so  we  do;  for  no  less 
than  three  books  are  taken  up  with  ceremonial  tactics;  forms 
to  be  observed  in  attendance  on  the  Emperor  on  sundry  oc- 
casions, the  etiquette  of  official  intercourse,  etc. ;  these  things 
occupying  a  place  among  the  serious  business  of  the  society. 
Fourteen  are  filled  with  specimens  of  prose  and  verse  from  the 
pens  of  leading  members,  and  one  is  assigned  to  a  high-flown 
description  of  the  magnificence  of  the  academical  buildings ; 
the  rest  contain  a  meagre  catalogue  of  official  employments  and 
literary  labors. 

What  a  picture  does  this  present — a  picture  drawn  by  them- 
selves— of  the  highest  literary  corporation  in  the  Empire !  Yet, 
notwithstanding  the  enormous  toadyism  with  which  they  are 
inflated,  we  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  twenty-two  books 
especially  devoted  to  the  emperors  are  by  far  the  most  readable 
and  instructive  portion  of  the  Memoirs.  They  throw  light  on 
the  personal  character  of  these  monarchs,  exhibit  the  nature  of 
their  intercourse  with  their  subjects,  and  illustrate  the  estimation 
in  which  polite  letters  are  held  in  the  view  of  the  government. 

The  first  chapter  opens  with  the  following : 

"  Shunche,  the  founder  of  the  Imperial  family,  in  the  tenth 
year  of  his  reign,  visited  the  Inner  Hall  of  the  Academy,  for  the 
purpose  of  inspecting  the  translation  of  the  Five  Classics.  On 
this  occasion,  his  Majesty  said,  '  The  virtues  of  Heaven  and  the 
true  method  of  government  are  all  recorded  in  the  Book  of 


32  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

History ;  its  principles  will  remain  unalterable  for  ten  thousand 
generations.' " 

The  translation  referred  to  was  into  the  Manchu  language ;  it 
was  made  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the  conquering  race  the 
more  speedily  to  acquire  the  civilization  of  the  conquered. 

The  young  sovereign,  then  only  sixteen  years  of  age,  shows 
by  this  brief  speech  how  thoroughly  he  had  become  imbued 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Confucian  books.  The  record  proceeds : 

"  In  the  fifth  moon  of  the  same  year,  his  Majesty  again  visit- 
ing the  Inner  Hall,  inquired  of  the  directors  why  the  writers 
had  ceased  from  their  work  so  early.  The  Chancellor  Fan  re- 
plied, 'This  is  the  summer  solstice;  we  suspend  our  labors  a 
little  earlier  on  that  account.' 

"  The  Emperor,  looking  round  on  his  attendant  officers,  said, 
'  To  take  advantage  of  some  peculiarity  of  the  season  to  make 
a  holiday  is  natural ;  but  if  you  wish  to  enjoy  repose,  you  must 
first  learn  to  labor;  you  must  aid  in  settling  the  Empire  on  a 
secure  basis,  and  then  your  days  of  rest  will  not  be  disturbed. 
If  you  aim  only  at  pleasure  without  restraining  your  desires, 
placing  self  and  family  first  and  the  Empire  second,  your  pleas- 
ure will  be  of  short  duration.  Behold,  for  example,  our  course 
of  conduct,  how  diligent  we  are  in  business,  how  anxiously  we 
strive  to  attain  perfection.  It  is  for  this  reason  we  take  pleas- 
ure in  hearing  the  discourses  of  these  learned  men  ;  men  of  the 
present  day  are  good  at  talking,  but  they  are  not  so  good  at 
acting.  Why  so  ?  Because  they  have  no  settled  principles  ; 
they  act  one  way  to-day  and  another  to-morrow.  But  who 
among  mortals  is  free  from  faults?  If  one  correct  his  faults 
when  he  knows  them,  he  is  a  good  man  ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  he 
conceal  his  faults  and  present  the  deceptive  aspect  of  virtue,  his 
errors  multiply  and  his  guilt  becomes  heavier.  If  we,  and  you, 
our  servants,  are  diligent  in  managing  the  affairs  of  state,  so 
that  the  benefit  shall  reach  the  people,  Heaven  will  certainly 
vouchsafe  its  protection;  while  on  those  who  do  evil  without 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  33 

inward  examination  or  outward  reform,  Heaven  will  send  down 
calamity.  ...  If  your  actions  were  virtuous,  would  Heaven 
afflict  you?  Ch'engt'ang  was  a  virtuous  ruler,  yet  he  did  not 
spare  pains  in  correcting  his  faults ;  on  the  contrary,  Chengteh, 
of  the  Ming  dynasty,  had  his  heart  set  on  enjoyment,  and  clung 
to  his  own  vices,  while  he  was  perpetually  finding  fault  with 
the  shortcomings  of  his  ministers.  When  the  prince  himself 
refuses  to  reform,  the  reformation  of  his  people  will  be  impossi- 
ble, however  virtuous  his  officers  may  be.' " 

This  little  sermon,  excepting  the  preceding  brief  encomium 
on  the  sacred  books,  is  all  that  the  Academy  has  thought  fit  to 
preserve  of  the  discourses  of  Shunche.  His  son,  the  illustrious 
Kanghi,  fills  a  large  space  in  the  Memoirs.  Here  are  a  few  ex- 
tracts, by  way  of  specimens : 

"The  Emperor  Kanghi,  in  the  ninth  year  of  his  reign  (the 
fifteenth  of  his  age),  said  to  the  officers  of  the  Board  of  Rites, 
'  If  one  would  learn  the  art  of  government,  he  must  explore  the 
classic  learning  of  the  ancients.  Whenever  we  can  find  a  day 
of  leisure  from  affairs  of  state,  we  spend  it  in  the  study  of  the 
classics.  Reflecting  that  what  is  called  Classic  Feast  and  Daily 
Exposition  are  important  usages,  which  ought  to  be  revived, 
you  are  required  to  examine  and  report  on  the  necessary  regu- 
lations.' " 

In  his  twelfth  year,  his  Majesty  said  to  the  Academician  Futali, 

"  To  cherish  an  inquiring  mind  is  the  secret  of  progress  in 
learning.  If  a  lesson  be  regarded  as  an  empty  form,  and,  when 
finished,  be  dismissed  from  the  thoughts,  what  benefit  can  there 
be  to  heart  or  life?  As  for  us,  when  our  servants  (the  Han- 
lin)  are  through  with  their  discourses,  we  always  reflect  deeply 
on  the  subject-matter,  and  talk  over  with  others  any  new  ideas 
we  may  have  obtained ;  our  single  aim  being  a  luminous  per- 
ception of  the  truth.  The  intervals  of  business,  whether  the 
weather  be  hot  or  cold,  we  occupy  in  reading  and  writing." 

So  saying,  his  Majesty  exhibited  a  specimen  of  his  penman- 

2* 


34  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

ship,  remarking  that  calligraphy  was  not  the  study  of  a  prince, 
but  that  he  found  amusement  in  it. 

In  the  ninth  moon  of  the  same  year,  his  Majesty  said  to 
Hiong-tsze-ltt, "  The  precept  in  the  Tahio,  on  the  study  of  things, 
is  very  comprehensive;  it  is  not  to  be  limited  to  mathematical 
inquiries  and  mechanical  contrivances." 

Again  he  said,  "  Heaven  and  earth,  past  and  present,  are  gov- 
erned by  one  law.  Our  aim  should  be  to  give  our  learning  the 
widest  possible  range,  and  to  condense  it  into  the  smallest  pos- 
sible compass." 

In  the  fourteenth  year,  his  Majesty,  on  reading  a  paper  of 
the  Hanlin,  and  finding  himself  compared  to  the  Three  Kings 
and  Two  Emperors  (of  ancient  times),  condemned  the  expres- 
sion as  a  piece  of  empty  flattery,  and  ordered  it  to  be  changed. 

In  the  sixteenth  year,  his  Majesty  said,  "Learning  must  be 
reduced  to  practice  in  order  to  be  beneficial.  You  are  required 
to  address  me  with  more  frankness,  concealing  nothing  in  order 
to  aid  me  in  carrying  into  practice  the  principles  to  which  I 
have  attended." 

In  the  nineteenth  year,  the  Emperor,  in  bestowing  on  mem- 
bers of  the  Hanlin  specimens  of  his  autograph,  remarked  that 
in  ancient  times  sovereign  and  subject  were  at  liberty  to  criti- 
cise each  other,  and  he  desired  them  to  exercise  that  liberty  in 
regard  to  his  handwriting,  which  he  did  not  consider  as  a  model. 

In  the  twenty-first  year,  in  criticising  certain  specimens  of 
ancient  chirography,  his  Majesty  pointed  to  one  from  the  pen 
of  Lukung,  remarking,  "  In  the  firmness  and  severity  of  these 
strokes  I  perceive  the  heroic  spirit  with  which  the  writer  bat- 
tled with  misfortune." 

In  the  twenty-second  year,  his  Majesty  ordered  that  the  topics 
chosen  for  the  lectures  of  the  Classic  Feast  should  not,  as  hith- 
erto, be  selected  solely  with  reference  to  the  sovereign,  but  that 
they  should  be  adapted  to  instruct  and  stimulate  the  officers  as 
well. 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  35 

In  the  twenty-third  year,  his  Majesty  was  on  a  journey,  when, 
the  boat  mooring  for  the  night,  he  continued  reading  until  the 
third  watch.  His  clerk — a  member  of  the  Hanlin — had  to  beg 
his  Majesty  to  allow  himself  a  little  more  time  for  repose ; 
whereupon  his  Majesty  gave  a  detailed  account  of  his  habits  of 
study,  all  the  particulars  of  which  are  here  faithfully  preserved. 

In  the  forty-third  year,  his  Majesty  said  to  the  High  Chancel- 
lor and  members  of  the  Academy,  "  From  early  youth  I  have 
been  fond  of  the  ink-stone ;  every  day  writing  a  thousand  char- 
acters, and  copying  with  care  the  chirography  of  the  famous 
scribes  of  antiquity.  This  practice  I  have  kept  up  for  more 
than  thirty  years,  because  it  was  the  bent  of  my  nature.  In  the 
Manchu  I  also  acquired  such  facility  that  I  never  make  a  mis- 
take. The  endorsements  on  memorials  from  viceroys  and  gov- 
ernors, and  Imperiaf  placets,  are  all  written  with  my  own  hand, 
without  the  aid  of  a  preliminary  draft.  Things  of  any  impor- 
tance, though  months  and  years  may  elapse,  I  never  forget,  not- 
withstanding the  endorsed  documents  are  on  file  in  the  respec- 
tive offices,  and  not  even  a  memorandum  left  in  my  hands." 

In  the  fiftieth  year,  his  Majesty  said  to  the  High  Chancellors, 

"In  former  generations  I  observe  that,  on  occasion  of  the 
Classic  Feast,  the  sovereign  was  accustomed  to  listen  in  respect- 
ful silence,  without  uttering  a  word.  By  that  means  his  igno- 
rance was  not  exposed,  though  he  might  not  comprehend  a  word 
of  the  discourse.  The  usage  was  thus  a  mere  name  without  the 
substance. 

"  As  for  me,  I  have  now  reigned  fifty  years  and  spent  all  my 
leisure  hours  in  diligent  study ;  and  whenever  the  draft  of  a  dis- 
course was  sent  in,  I  never  failed  to  read  it  over.  If  by  chance 
a  word  or  sentence  appeared  doubtful,  I  always  discussed  it  with 
my  literary  aids ;  for  the  Classic  Feast  is  an  important  institu- 
tion, and  not  by  any  means  to  be  viewed  as  an  insignificant  cer- 
emony." 

Of  Yungcheng,  the  son  and  successor  of  Kanghi,  the  Memoirs 


36  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

have  preserved  but  a  single  discourse,  and  of  that  only  its  open- 
ing sentence  is  worth  quoting.  His  Majesty  said  to  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Hanlin,  "  Literature  is  your  business,  but  we  want 
such  literature  as  will  serve  to  regulate  the  age  and  reflect  glory 
on  the  nation.  As  for  sonnets  to  the  moon  and  the  clouds,  the 
winds  and  the  dews — of  what  use  are  they  ?" 

The  next  Emperor,  Kienlung,  far  surpassed  his  predecessors  in 
literary  taste  and  attainments;  and  his  reign  being  long  (sixty 
years),  his  communications  to  the  Hanlin  are  more  than  propor- 
tionally voluminous.  Space,  however,  compels  us  to  make  our 
extracts  in  the  inverse  ratio.  Many  of  the  preceding  and  some 
which  follow  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  Academy,  save  that 
they  were  speeches  uttered  in  the  hearing  of  the  Hanlin,  and  by 
them  recorded.  This,  however,  is  to  the  point. 

In  the  second  year  his  Majesty  said  to  Ae  general  directors, 
"  Yesterday  we  examined  the  members  of  the  Academy,  giving 
them  for  a  theme  the  sentence  '  It  is  hard  to  be  a  sovereign,  and 
to  be  a  subject  is  not  easy.'  Of  course  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  force  of  the  expressions  '  hard '  and  '  not  easy,'  yet  not  one 
of  them  perceived  the  distinction."  Here  follows  an  elaborate 
exposition  from  the  vermilion  pencil,  which  I  must  forego,  at 
the  risk  of  leaving  my  readers  in  perpetual  darkness  as  to  the 
momentous  distinction.  It  is,  however,  but  just  to  say  that  the 
Emperor  intends  the  paper,  not  as  a  scholastic  exercise,  but  as  a 
political  lesson. 

In  the  fifth  year,  his  Majesty  says  he  has  remarked  that  the 
addresses  of  the  Hanlin  contain  a  large  amount  of  adulation,  and 
a  very  small  amount  of  instruction.  He  accordingly  recommends 
them  to  modify  their  style.  Two  years  later  he  complains  that 
"the  Hanlin  often  make  a  text  from  the  sacred  books  a  stalk- 
ing-horse for  irrelevant  mattters ;  e.  g.  Cltow-changfah,  in  lectur- 
ing on  the  Book  of  Rites,  took  occasion  to  laud  the  magnificence 
of  our  sacrifice  at  the  Altar  of  Heaven  as  without  a  parallel  for 
a  thousand  years."  "  Before  the  sacrifice,"  he  says, 


THE    HANLIN    YUAN,   OR    IMPERIAL    ACADEMY.  37 

"'Heaven  gave  a  good  omen  in  a  fall  of  snow,  and  during  its 
performance  the  sun  shone  down  propitiously.'  Now  these  rites 
were  not  of  my  institution ;  moreover,  the  soft  winds  and  gentle 
sunshine  on  the  occasion  were  purely  accidental ;  for  at  that  very 
time  the  Province  of  Kiangnan  was  suffering  from  disastrous 
floods,  and  my  mind  tormented  with  anxiety  on  that  account. 
Let  Chow-changfah  be  severely  reprimanded,  and  let  the  other 
Hanlin  take  warning." 

Among  the  remaining  speeches  of  Kienlung,  there  are  three 
that  do  him  credit  as  a  vindicator  of  the  truth  of  history.  In 
one  of  them  he  rebukes  the  historiographers  for  describing  cer- 
tain descendants  of  the  Mings  as  usurpers,  observing  that  they 
came  honestly  by  their  titles,  though  they  were  not  able  to  main- 
tain them.  In  another  he  criticises  the  ignorance  and  wilful  per- 
versions of  facts  exhibited  by  Chinese  historians  in  their  account 
of  the  three  preceding  Tartar  dynasties — namely,  the  Liau,  Kin, 
and  Yuen.  And  in  the  last  he  reproves  his  own  writers  of  his- 
tory for  omitting  the  name  of  a  meritorious  individual  who  had 
fallen  into  disgrace. 

Among  the  communications  of  the  next  Emperor,  Kiaking 
(the  Memoirs  close  with  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign),  I  find 
nothing  of  sufficient  interest  to  be  worth  the  space  it  would  oc- 
cupy. 

Thus  far  the  emperors ;  what  the  Hanlin  say  to  them  in  con- 
versation or  formal  discourse  is  not  recorded.  But  we  know 
that  they  are  so  situated  as  to  exert  a  more  direct  influence  on 
the  mind  of  their  master  than  subjects  of  any  other  class.  They 
are  the  instructors  of  his  youth,  and  the  counsellors  of  his  ma- 
turer  years ;  and  this,  the  fixing  of  the  views  and  moulding  of 
the  character  of  the  autocrat  of  the  Empire,  we  may  fairly  regard 
as  their  most  exalted  function. 

But  if  they  influence  the  Emperor,  we  see  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  how  easy  it  is  for  the  Emperor  to  influence  them. 
Herein  is  our  hope  for  the  rehabilitation  of  the  Academy.  Far 


38  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

from  being  decayed  or  effete,  it  contains  as  many  and  as  active 
minds  as  at  any  previous  period.  At  present  they  spend  much 
of  their  time  in  making  "  sonnets  to  the  moon  ;"  but  if  the  Em- 
peror were  so  disposed,  he  could  change  all  that  in  a  moment. 
He  could  employ  the  Haulin  in  translating  out  of  English  as 
well  as  into  Manchu — in  studying  science  as  well  as  letters. 

Nor  are  indications  wanting  that  this  change  in  the  direction 
of  their  mental  activity  is  likely  to  take  place.  Some  years  ago 
Prince  Kung  proposed  that  the  junior  members  of  the  Hanlin 
should  be  required  to  attend  the  Tungwen  College,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acquiring  the  languages  and  sciences  of  Europe.  Wojin, 
a  president  of  the  Hanlin  and  teacher  of  the  Emperor,  presented 
a  counter-memorial,  and  the  measure  failed.  But  such  is  the 
march  of  events  that  the  same  measure,  possibly  in  some  modi- 
fied form,  is  sure  to  be  revived,  and  destined  to  be  finally  success- 
ful. 

When  that  time  arrives,  the  example  of  the  Academy  will  have 
great  weight  in  promoting  a  radical  revolution  in  the  character 
of  the  national  education. 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  39 


COMPETITIVE  EXAMINATIONS  IN  CHINA.* 

THE  reform  proposed  in  the  organization  of  our  civil  service, 
which  contemplates  the  introduction  of  a  system  of  competitive 
examinations,  makes  an  inquiry  into  the  experience  of  other  na- 
tions timely.  England,  France,  and  Prussia  have  each  made  use 
of  competitive  examinations  in  some  branches  of  their  public 
service.  In  all  these  states  the  result  has  been  uniform — a  con- 
viction that  such  a  system,  so  far  as  it  can  be  employed,  affords 
the  best  method  of  ascertaining  the  qualifications  of  candidates 
for  government  employment.  But  in  these  countries  the  exper- 
iment is  of  recent  date  and  of  limited  application.  We  must  look 
farther  East  if  we  would  see  the  system  working  on  a  scale  suf- 
ficiently large  and  through  a  period  sufficiently  extended  to  af- 
ford us  a  full  exhibition  of  its  advantages  and  defects. 

It  is  in  China  that  its  merits  have  been  tested  in  the  most  sat- 
isfactory manner;  and  if  in  this  instance  we  should  profit  by 
their  experience,  it  would  not  be  the  first  lesson  we  have  learned 
from  the  Chinese,  nor  the  last  they  are  capable  of  giving  us.  It 
is  to  them  that  we  are  indebted,  among  other  obligations,  for  the 
mariner's  compass,  for  gunpowder,f  and  probably  also  for  a  re- 
mote suggestion  of  the  art  of  printing.  These  arts  have  been 
of  the  first  importance  in  their  bearing  on  the  advancement  of 
society — one  of  them  having  effected  a  complete  revolution  in 
the  character  of  modern  warfare,  while  the  others  have  imparted 

*  Reprinted  from  the  North  American  Review  for  July,  1870.  Read  orig- 
inally before  the  American  Oriental  Society  at  Boston,  October,  1868. 

f  China's  claim  to  the  discovery  of  gunpowder  has  been  vigorously  com- 
bated, but,  in  my  opinion,  not  set  aside. 


40  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

a  mighty  impulse  to  intellectual  culture  and  commercial  enter- 
prise. Nor  is  it  too  much  to  affirm  that,  if  we  should  adopt  the 
Chinese  method  of  testing  the  ability  of  candidates,  and  of  se- 
lecting the  best  men  for  the  service  of  the  State,  the  change  it 
would  effect  in  our  civil  administration  would  be  not  less  bene- 
ficial than  those  that  have  been  brought  about  by  the  discoveries 
in  the  arts  to  which  I  have  referred. 

The  bare  suggestion  may  perhaps  provoke  a  smile ;  but  does 
any  one  smile  at  the  idea  that  we  might  improve  our  polity  by 
studying  the  institutions  of  Egypt,  Rome,  or  Greece  ?  Are,  then, 
the  arrangements  of  a  government  that  arose  with  the  earliest  of 
those  states,  and  still  exists  in  undecaying  vigor,  to  be  passed  as 
undeserving  of  attention  ?  The  long  duration  of  the  Chinese 
government,  and  the  vast  population  to  which  it  has  served  to 
secure  a  fair  measure  of  prosperity,  are  phenomena  that  challenge 
admiration.  Why  should  it  be  considered  derogatory  to  our  civ- 
ilization to  copy  an  institution  which  is  confessedly  the  master- 
piece in  that  skilful  mechanism — the  balance-wheel  that  regulates 
the  working  of  that  wonderful  machinery  ? 

In  the  arts  which  we  have  borrowed  from  the  Chinese  we 
have  not  been  servile  imitators.  In  every  case  we  have  made 
improvements  that  astonish  the  original  inventors.  We  employ 
movable  type,  apply  steam  and  electricity  to  printing,  use  the 
needle  as  a  guide  over  seas  which  no  junk  would  have  ventured 
to  traverse,  and  construct  artillery  such  as  the  inventors  of  gun- 
powder never  dreamed  of.  Would  it  be  otherwise  with  a  trans- 
planted competitive  system  ?  Should  we  not  be  able  to  purge  it 
of  certain  defects  that  adhere  to  it  in  China,  and  so  render  it  pro- 
ductive of  good  results  which  it  fails  to  yield  in  its  native  cli- 
mate ?  I  think,  therefore,  that  I  shall  serve  a  better  purpose 
than  the  simple  gratification  of  curiosity  if  I  devote  a  brief  space 
to  the  consideration  of  the  most  admirable  institution  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire. 

Its  primary  object  was  to  provide  men  of  ability  *or  the  ser- 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  41 

vice  of  the  State,  and,  whatever  else  it  may  have  failed  to  accom- 
plish, it  is  impossible  to  deny  that  it  has  fulfilled  its  specific  end 
in  a  remarkable  degree.  The  mandarins  of  China  are  almost 
without  exception  the  choicest  specimens  of  the  educated  classes. 
Alike  in  the  capital  and  in  the  provinces,  it  is  the  mandarins  that 
take  the  lead  in  every  kind  of  literary  enterprise.  It  is  to  them 
the  Emperor  looks  to  instruct  as  well  as  to  govern  his  people ; 
and  it  is  to  them  that  the  publishers  look  for  additions  to  the 
literature  of  the  nation — nine  tenths  of  the  new  books  being 
written  by  mandarins.  In  their  social  meetings,  their  conversa- 
tion abounds  in  classical  allusions ;  and  instead  of  after-dinner 
speeches,  they  are  accustomed  to  amuse  themselves  with  the 
composition  of  impromptu  verses,  which  they  throw  off  with  in- 
credible facility.  It  is  their  duty  to  encourage  the  efforts  of  stu- 
dents, to  preside  at  the  public  examinations,  and  to  visit  the  pub- 
lic schools — to  promote,  in  short,  by  example  as  well  as  precept 
the  interests  of  education.  Scarcely  anything  is  deemed  a  deep- 
er disgrace  than  for  a  magistrate  to  be  found  incompetent  for 
this  department  of  his  official  duties.  So  identified,  indeed,  are 
the  mandarins  with  all  that  constitutes  the  intellectual  life  of 
the  Chinese  people  that  foreigners  have  come  to  regard  them 
as  a  favored  caste,  like  the  Brahmins  of  India,  or  as  a  distinct 
order  enjoying  a  monopoly  of  learning,  like  the  priesthood  in 
Egypt. 

Nothing  could  be  further  from  the  truth.  Those  stately  offi- 
cials, for  whom 'the  people  make  way  with  such  awe-struck  defer- 
ence, as  they  pass  along  the  street  with  embroidered  robes  and 
imposing  retinue,  are  not  possessors  of  hereditary  rank,  neither 
do  they  owe  their  elevation  to  the  favor  of  their  sovereign,  nor 
yet  to  the  suffrages  of  their  fellow-subjects.  They  are  self-elect- 
ed, and  the  people  regard  them  with  the  deeper  respect,  because 
they  know  that  they  have  earned  their  position  by  intellectual 
effort.  What  can  be  more  truly  democratic  than  thus  to  offer 
to  all  "  the  inspiration  of  a  fair  opportunity  ?"  In  this  genuine 


42  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

democracy  China  stands  unapproached  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth ;  for  whatever  imperfections  may  attach  to  her  social  or- 
ganization or  to  her  political  system,  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  China  has  devised  the  most  effectual  method  for  encourao-- 

O 

ing  effort  and  rewarding  merit.  Here  at  least  is  one  country 
where  wealth  is  not  allowed  to  raise  its  possessor  to  the  seat  of 
power ;  where  the  will  even  of  an  emperor  cannot  bestow  its  of- 
fices on  uneducated  favorites ;  and  where  the  caprice  of  the  mul- 
titude is  not  permitted  to  confer  the  honors  of  the  State  on  in- 
competent demagogues. 

The  institution  that  accomplishes  these  results  is  not  an  inno- 
vation on  the  traditional  policy  of  the  Empire.  It  runs  back  in 
its  essential  features  to  the  earliest  period  of  recorded  history. 
The  adherence  of  the  Chinese  to  it  through  so  many  ages  well 
illustrates  the  conservative  element  in  the  national  character; 
while  the  important  changes  it  has  undergone  prove  that  this 
people  is  not  by  any  means  so  fettered  by  tradition  as  to  be  in- 
capable of  welcoming  improvements. 

The  germ  from  which  it  sprang  was  a  maxim  of  the  ancient 
sages,  expressed  in  four  syllables — Chu  hienjin  neng — "  Employ 
the  able  and  promote  the  worthy ;"  and  examinations  were  re- 
sorted to  as  affording  the  best  test  of  ability  and  worth.  Of  the 
Great  Shun,  that  model  emperor  of  remote  antiquity,  who  lived 
about  B.C.  2200,  it  is  recorded  that  he  examined  his  officers 
every  third  year,  and  after  these  examinations  either  gave  them 
promotion  or  dismissed  them  from  the  service.  On  what  sub- 
jects he  examined  them  at  a  time  when  letters  were  but  newly 
invented,  and  when  books  had  as  yet  no  existence,  we  are  not 
told;  neither  are  we  informed  whether  he  subjected  candidates 
to  any  test  previous  to  appointment ;  yet  the  mere  fact  of  such 
a  periodical  examination  established  a  precedent  which  has  con- 
tinued to  be  observed  to  the  present  day.  Every  third  year  the 
government  holds  a  great  examination  for  the  trial  of  candi- 
dates, and  every  fifth  year  makes  a  formal  inquisition  into  the 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  43 

record  of  its  civil  functionaries.  The  latter  is  a  poor  substitute 
for  the  ordeal  of  public  criticism  to  which  officials  are  exposed 
in  a  country  enjoying  a  free  press ;  but  the  former,  as  we  shall 
have  occasion  to  show,  is  thorough  of  its  kind,  and  severely  im- 
partial. 

More  than  a  thousand  years  after  the  above  date,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Chow  dynasty,  B.C.  1115,  the  government 
was  accustomed  to  examine  candidates  as  well  as  officers ;  and 
this  time  we  are  not  left  in  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  exam- 
ination. The  Chinese  had  become  a  cultivated  people,  and  we 
are  informed  that  all  candidates  for  office  were  required  to  give 
proof  of  their  acquaintance  with  the  five  arts — music,  archery, 
horsemanship,  writing,  and  arithmetic ;  and  to  be  thoroughly 
versed  in  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  public  and  social  life — an 
accomplishment  that  ranked  as  a  sixth  art.  These  "  six  arts," 
expressed  in  the  concise  formula  li,  yo,  shay,  yu,  shu,  su,  compre- 
hended the  sum  total  of  a  liberal  education  at  the  period,  and 
remind  us  of  the  trivium  and  quadrivium  of  the  mediaeval 
schools. 

Under  the  dynasty  of  Han,  after  the  lapse  of  another  thousand 
years,  we  find  the  range  of  subjects  for  the  civil-service  examina- 
tions largely  extended.  The  Confucian  Ethics  had  become  cur- 
rent, and  a  moral  standard  was  regarded  in  the  selection  of  the 
competitors — the  district  magistrates  being  required  to  send  up 
to  the  capital  such  men  as  had  acquired  a  reputation  for  hiao 
and  lien — "  filial  piety  "  and  "  integrity  " — the  Chinese  rightly 
considering  that  the  faithful  performance  of  domestic  and  social 
duties  is  the  best  guarantee  for  fidelity  in  public  life.  These 
hiao-lien,  these  "  filial  sons  and  honest  subjects,"  whose  moral 
character  had  been  sufficiently  attested,  were  now  subjected  to 
trial  in  respect  to  their  intellectual  qualifications.  The  trial  was 
twofold — first,  as  to  their  skill  in  the  "  six  arts  "  already  men- 
tioned ;  and,  secondly,  as  to  their  familiarity  with  one  or  more 
of  the  following  subjects :  the  civil  law,  military  affairs,  agricult- 


44  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

ure,  the  administration  of  the  revenue,  and  the  geography  of  the 
Empire  with  special  reference  to  the  state  of  the  water  communi- 
cations. This  was  an  immense  advance  on  the  meagre  require- 
ments of  the  more  ancient  dynasties. 

Passing  over  another  thousand  years,  we  come  to  the  era  of 
the  Tangs  and  the  Sungs,  when  we  find  the  standard  of  literary 
attainment  greatly  elevated,  the  graduates  arranged  in  three 
classes,  and  officials  in  nine — a  classification  which  is  still  re- 
tained. 

Arriving  at  the  close  of  the  fourth  millennium,  under  the  sway 
of  the  Mings  and  the  Tsings  of  the  present-day,  we  find  the  sim- 
ple trials  instituted  by  Shun  expanded  into  a  colossal  system, 
which  may  well  claim  to  be  the  growth  of  four  thousand  years. 
It  still  exhibits  the  features  that  were  prominent  in  its  earlier 
stages — the  "six  arts,"  the  "five  studies,"  and  the  "three  de- 
grees "  remaining  as  records  of  its  progressive  development.  But 
the  "six  arts"  are  not  what  they  once  were;  and  the  admirers 
of  antiquity  complain  that  examinations  are  sadly  superficial  as 
compared  with  those  of  the  olden  time,  when  competitors  were 
required  to  ride  a  race,  to  shoot  at  a  target,  and  to  sing  songs  of 
their  own  composition  to  the  accompaniment  of  their  own  gui- 
tars. In  these  degenerate  days  examiners  are  satisfied  with  odes 
in  praise  of  music,  and  essays  on  the  archery  and  horsemanship 
of  the  ancients. 

Scholarship  is  a  very  different  thing  now  from  what  it  was  in 
those  ruder  ages,  when  books  were  few,  and  the  harp,  the  bow, 
and  the  saddle  divided  the  student's  time  with  the  oral  instruc- 
tions of  some  famous  master.  Each  century  has  added  to  the 
weight  of  his  burden;  and  to  the  "heir  of  all  the  ages"  each 
passing  generation  has  bequeathed  a  legacy  of  toil.  Doomed  to 
live  among  the  deposits  of  a  buried  world,  and  contending  with 
millions  of  competitors,  he  can  hardly  hope  for  success  without 
devoting  himself  to  a  life  of  unremitting  study.  True,  he  is  not 
called  upon  to  extend  his  researches  beyond  the  limits  of  his  own 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  45 

national  literature ;  but  that  is  all  but  infinite.  It  costs  him  at 
the  outset  years  of  labor  to  get  possession  of  the  key  that  un- 
locks it;  for  the  learned  language  is  totally  distinct  from  his 
vernacular  dialect,  and  justly  regarded  as  the  most  difficult  of  the 
languages  of  man.  Then  he  must  commit  to  memory  the  whole 
circle  of  the  recognized  classics,  and  make  himself  familiar  with 
the  best  writers  of  every  age  of  a  country  which  is  no  less  pro- 
lific in  books  than  in  men.  No  doubt  his  course  of  study  is  too 
purely  literary  and  too  exclusively  Chinese,  but  it  is  not  superfi- 
cial. In  a  popular  "  Student's  Guide  "  we  lately  met  with  a 
course  of  reading  drawn  up  for  thirty  years !  We  proposed 
putting  it  into  the  hands  of  a  young  American  residing  in 
China,  who  had  asked  advice  as  to  what  he  should  read.  "  Send 
it,"  he  replied,  "  but  don't  tell  my  mother." 

But  it  is  time  to  take  a  closer  view  of  these  examinations  as 
they  are  actually  conducted.  The  candidates  for  office — those 
who  are  acknowledged  as  such  in  consequence  of  sustaining  the 
initial  trial — are  divided  into  the  three  grades  of  siu-ts'ai,  chu- 
jin,  and  tsin-shi — "budding  geniuses,"  "promoted  scholars," 
and  those  who  are  "  ready  for  office."  The  trials  for  the  first 
are  held  in  the  chief  city  of  each  district  or  hien,  a  territorial  di- 
vision which  corresponds  to  our  county  or  to  an  English  shire. 
They  are  conducted  by  a  chancellor,  whose  jurisdiction  extends 
over  an  entire  province  containing,  it  may  be,  sixty  or  seventy 
such  districts,  each  of  which  he  is  required  to  visit  once  a  year, 
and  each  of  which  is  provided  with  a  resident  sub-chancellor, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  examine  the  scholars  in  the  interval,  and  to 
have  them  in  readiness  on  the  chancellor's  arrival. 

About  two  thousand  competitors  enter  the  lists,  ranging  in  age 
from  the  precocious  youth  just  entering  his  teens  up  to  the  ven- 
erable grandsire  of  seventy  winters.  Shut  up  for  a  night  and  a 
day,  each  in  his  narrow  cell,  they  produce  each  a  poem  and  one 
or  two  essays  on  themes  assigned  by  the  chancellor,  and  then  re- 
turn to  their  homes  to  await  the  bulletin  announcing  their  place 


46  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

in  the  scale  of  merit.  The  chancellor,  assisted  by  his  clerks,  oc- 
cupies several  days  in  sifting  the  heap  of  manuscripts,  from 
which  he  picks  out  some  twenty  or  more  that  are  distinguished 
by  beauty  of  penmanship  and  grace  of  diction.  The  authors  of 
these  are  honored  with  the  degree  of  "  Budding  Genius,"  and 
are  entitled  to  wear  the  decorations  of  the  lowest  grade  in  the 
corporation  of  mandarins. 

The  successful  student  wins  no  purse  of  gold  and  obtains  no 
office,  but  he  has  gained  a  prize  which  he  deems  a  sufficient 
compensation  for  years  of  patient  toil.  He  is  the  best  of  a  hun- 
dred scholars,  exempted  from  liability  to  corporal  punishment, 
and  raised  above  the  vulgar  herd.  The  social  consideration  to 
which  he  is  now  entitled  makes  it  a  grand  day  for  him  and  his 
family. 

Once  in  three  years  these  "  Budding  Geniuses,"  these  picked 
men  of  the  districts,  repair  to  the  provincial  capital  to  engage  in 
competition  for  the  second  degree — that  of  chu-jin,  or  "  Promot- 
ed Scholar."  The  number  of  competitors  amounts  to  ten  thou- 
sand, more  or  less,  and  of  these  only  one  in  every  hundred  can 
be  admitted  to  the  coveted  degree.  The  trial  is  conducted  by 
special  examiners  sent  down  from  Peking ;  and  this  examination 
takes  a  wider  range  than  the  preceding.  No  fewer  than  three 
sessions  of  nearly  three  days  each  are  occupied,  instead  of  the 
single  day  for  the  first  degree.  Compositions  in  prose  and  verse 
are  required,  and  themes  are  assigned  with  a  special  view  to  test- 
ing the  extent  of  reading  and  depth  of  scholarship  of  the  candi- 
dates. Penmanship  is  left  out  of  the  account — each  production, 
marked  with  a  cipher,  being  copied  by  an  official  scribe,  that  the 
examiners  may  have  no  clew  to  its  author  and  no  temptation  to 
render  a  biassed  judgment. 

The  victor  still  receives  neither  office  nor  emolument ;  but  the 
honor  he  achieves  is  scarcely  less  than  that  which  was  won  by 
the  victors  in  the  Olympic  games.  Again,  he  is  one  of  a  hun- 
dred, each  of  whom  was  a  picked  man  ;  and  as  a  result  of  this 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  47 

second  victory  he  goes  forth  an  acknowledged  superior  among 
ten  thousand  contending  scholars.  He  adorns  his  cap  "with  the 
gilded  button  of  a  higher  grade,  erects  a  pair  of  lofty  flag-staves 
before  the  gate  of  his  family  residence,  and  places  a  tablet  over 
his  door  to  inform  those  who  pass  by  that  this  is  the  abode  of 
a  literary  prize-man.  But  our  "  Promoted  Scholar  "  is  not  yet 
a  mandarin  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term.  The  distinction  al- 
ready attained  only  stimulates  his  desire  for  higher  honors — 
honors  which  bring  at  last  the  solid  recompense  of  an  income. 

In  the  spring  of  the  following  year  he  proceeds  to  Peking  to 
seek  the  next  higher  degree,  attainment  of  which  will  prove  a 
passport  to  office.  The  contest  is  still  with  his  peers;  that  is, 
with  other  "Promoted  Scholars,"  who,  like  himself,  have  come 
up  from  all  the  provinces  of  the  empire.  But  the  chances  are 
this  time  more  in  his  favor,  as  the  number  of  prizes  is  now 
tripled ;  and  if  the  gods  are  propitious,  his  fortune  is  made. 

Though  ordinarily  not  very  devout,  he  now  shows  himself 
peculiarly  solicitous  to  secure  the  favor  of  the  divinities.  He 
burns  incense  and  gives  alms.  If  he  sees  a  fish  floundering  on 
the  hook,  he  pays  its  price  and  restores  it  to  its  native  element. 
He  picks  struggling  ants  out  of  the  rivulet  made  by  a  recent 
shower,  distributes  moral  tracts,  or,  better  still,  rescues  chance 
bits  of  printed  paper  from  being  trodden  in  the  mire  of  the 
streets.*  If  his  name  appears  among  the  favored  few,  he  not 
only  wins  himself  a  place  in  the  front  ranks  of  the  lettered,  but 
he  plants  his  foot  securely  on  the  rounds  of  the  official  ladder 
by  which,  without  the  prestige  of  birth  or  the  support  of  friends, 
it  is  possible  to  rise  to  a  seat  in  the  Grand  Council  of  State  or 
a  place  in  the  Imperial  Cabinet.  All  this  advancement  presents 
itself  in  the  distant  prospect,  while  the  office  upon  which  he  im- 

*  The  bearing  of  good  works  of  this  kind  on  the  result  of  the  competition 
is  copiously  illustrated  by  collections  of  anecdotes  which  are  widely  circu- 
lated. 


48  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

mediately  enters  is  one  of  respectability,  and  it  may  be  of  profit. 
It  is  generally  that  of  mayor  or  sub-mayor  of  a  district  city,  or 
sub-chancellor  in  the  district  examinations  —  the  vacant  posts 
being  distributed  by  lot,  and  therefore  impartially,  among  those 
who  have  proved  themselves  to  be  "  ready  for  office." 

Before  the  drawing  of  lots,  however,  for  the  post  of  a  magis- 
trate among  the  people,  our  ambitious  student  has  a  chance  of 
winning  the  more  distinguished  honor  of  a  place  in  the  Imperial 
Academy.  With  this  view,  the  two  or  three  hundred  survivors 
of  so  many  contests  appear  in  the  palace,  where  themes  are  as- 
signed them  by  the  Emperor  himself,  and  the  highest  honor  is 
paid  to  the  pursuit  of  letters  by  the  exercises  being  presided 
over  by  his  Majesty  in  person.  Penmanship  reappears  as  an 
element  in  determining  the  result,  and  a  score  or  more  of  those 
whose  style  is  the  most  finished,  whose  scholarship  the  ripest, 
and  whose  handwriting  the  most  elegant,  are  drafted  into  the 
college  of  Hanlin,  the  "forest  of  pencils," a  kind  of  Imperial 
Institute  the  members  of  which  are  recognized  as  standing  at 
the  head  of  the  literary  profession.  These  are  constituted  poets 
and  historians  to  the  Celestial  Court,  or  deputed  to  act  as  chan- 
cellors and  examiners  in  the  several  provinces.* 

But  the  diminishing  series  in  this  ascending  scale  has  not  yet 
reached  its  final  term.  The  long  succession  of  contests  culmi- 
nates in  the  designation  by  the  Emperor  of  some  individual  whom 
he  regards  as  the  chuang-yuen,  or  model  scholar  of  the  Empire 
— the  bright  consummate  flower  of  the  season.  This  is  not  a 
common  annual  like  the  senior  wranglership  of  Cambridge,  nor 
the  product  of  a  private  garden  like  the  valedictory  orator  of 
our  American  colleges.  It  blooms  but  once  in  three  years,  and 
the  whole  Empire  yields  but  a  single  blossom — a  blossom  that  is 
culled  by  the  hand  of  Majesty  and  esteemed  among  the  brightest 
ornaments  of  his  dominion.  Talk  of  academic  honors  such  as 

*  Vide  preceding  article  for  details  concerning  the  Hanlin  Yuan. 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  49 

are  bestowed  by  Western  nations  in  comparison  with  those  which 
this  Oriental  Empire  heaps  on  her  scholar  laureate !  Prov- 
inces contend  for  the  shining  prize,  and  the  town  that  gives 
the  victor  birth  becomes  noted  forever.  Swift  heralds  bear  the 
tidings  of  his  triumph,  and  the  hearts  of  the  people  leap  at  their 
approach.  We  have  seen  them  enter  a  humble  cottage,  and 
amidst  the  flaunting  of  banners  and  the  blare  of  trumpets  an- 
nounce to  its  startled  inmates  that  one  of  their  relations  had 
been  crowned  by  the  Emperor  as  the  laureate  of  the  year.  And 
so  high  was  the  estimation  in  which  the  people  held  the  success 
of  their  fellow-townsman  that  his  wife  was  requested  to  visit 
the  six  gates  of  the  city,  and  to  scatter  before  each  a  handful  of 
rice,  that  the  whole  population  might  share  in  the  good-fortune 
of  her  household.  A  popular  tale,  La  Bleue  et  la  Blanche, 
translated  from  the  Chinese  by  M.  Julien,  represents  a  goddess 
as  descending  from  heaven,  that  she  might  give  birth  to  the 
scholar  laureate  of  the  Empire. 

All  this  has,  we  confess,  an  air  of  Oriental  display  and  exag- 
geration. It  suggests  rather  the  dust  and  sweat  of  the  great  na- 
tional games  of  antiquity  than  the  mental  toil  and  intellectual 
triumphs  of  the  modern  world.  But  it  is  obvious  that  a  com- 
petition which  excites  so  profoundly  the  interest  of  a  whole  na- 
tion must  be  productive  of  very  decided  results.  That  it  leads 
to  the  selection  of  the  best  talent  for  the  service  of  the  public 
we  have  already  seen ;  but  beyond  this — its  primary  object — it 
exercises  a  profound  influence  upon  the  education  of  the  people 
and  the  stability  of  the  government.  It  is  all,  in  fact,  that  China 
has  to  show  in  the  way  of  an  educational  system.  She  has  few 
colleges  and  no  universities  in  our  Western  sense,  and  no  na- 
tional system  of  common-schools ;  yet  it  may  be  confidently  as- 
serted that  China  gives  to  learning  a  more  effective  patronage 
than  she  could  have  done  if  each  of  her  emperors  had  been  an 
Augustus  and  every  premier  a  Maecenas.  She  says  to  all  her  sons, 
"  Prosecute  your  studies  by  such  means  as  you  may  be  able  to 

3 


50  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

command,  whether  in  public  or  in  private ;  and,  when  you  are 
prepared,  present  yourselves  in  the  examination-hall.  The  gov- 
ernment will  judge  of  your  proficiency  and  reward  your  attain- 
ments." 

Nothing  can  exceed  the  ardor  which  this  standing  offer  in- 
fuses into  the  minds  of  all  who  have  the  remotest  prospect  of 
sharing  in  the  prizes.  They  study  not  merely  while  they  have 
teachers  to  incite  them  to  diligence,  but  continue  their  studies 
with  unabated  zeal  long  after  they  have  left  the  schools;  they 
study  in  solitude  and  poverty ;  they  study  amidst  the  cares  of  a 
family  and  the  turmoil  of  business ;  and  the  shining  goal  is  kept 
steadily  in  view  until  the  eye  grows  dim.  Some  of  the  aspirants 
impose  on  themselves  the  task  of  writing  a  fresh  essay  every 
day ;  and  they  do  not  hesitate  to  enter  the  lists  as  often  as  the 
public  examinations  recur,  resolved,  if  they  fail,  to  continue  try- 
ing, believing  that  perseverance  has  power  to  command  success, 
and  encouraged  by  the  legend  of  the  man  who,  needing  a  sewing- 
needle,  made  one  by  grinding  a  crowbar  on  a  piece  of  granite. 

We  have  met  an  old  mandarin  who  related  with  evident  pride 
how,  on  gaining  the  second  degree,  he  had  removed  with  his 
whole  family  to  Peking,  from  the  distant  province  of  Yunnan, 
to  compete  for  the  third ;  and  how  at  each  triennial  contest  he 
had  failed,  until,  after  more  than  twenty  years  of  patient  wait- 
ing, at  the  seventh  trial,  and  at  the  mature  age  of  threescore, 
he  bore  off  the  coveted  prize.  He  had  worn  his  honors  for 
seven  years,  and  was  then  mayor  of  the  city  of  Tientsin.  In  a 
list  now  on  our  table  of  ninety-nine  successful  competitors  for 
the  second  degree,  sixteen  are  over  forty  years  of  age,  one  sixty- 
two,  and  one  eighty-three.  The  average  age  of  the  whole  num- 
ber is  above  thirty ;  and  for  the  third  degree  the  average  is  of 
course  proportionally  higher. 

So  powerful  are  the  motives  addressed  to  them  that  the  whole 
body  of  scholars  who  once  enter  the  examination-hall  are  de- 
voted to  study  as  a  life-long  occupation.  We  thus  have  a  class 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  51 

of  men,  numbering  in  the  aggregate  some  millions,  who  keep 
their  faculties  bright  by  constant  exercise,  and  whom  it  would 
be  difficult  to  parallel  in  any  Western  country  for  readiness 
with  the  pen  and  retentiveness  of  memory.  If  these  men  are 
not  highly  educated,  it  is  the  fault,  not  of  the  competitive  sys- 
tem, which  proves  its  power  to  stimulate  them  to  such  prodigious 
exertions,  but  of  the  false  standard  of  intellectual  merit  estab- 
lished in  China.  In  that  country  letters  are  everything  and 
science  nothing.  Men  occupy  themselves  with  words  rather 
than  with  things;  and  the  powers  of  acquisition  are  more  culti- 
vated than  those  of  invention. 

The  type  of  Chinese  education  is  not  that  of  our  modern 
schools;  but  when  compared  with  the  old  curriculum  of  lan- 
guages and  philosophy  it  appears  by  no  means  contemptible. 
A  single  paper,  intended  for  the  last  day  of  the  examination  for 
the  second  degree,  may  serve  as  a  specimen.  It  covers  five  sub- 
jects— criticism,  history,  agriculture,  military  affairs,  and  finance. 
There  are  about  twenty  questions  on  each  subject,  and  while 
they  certainly  do  not  deal  with  it  in  a  scientific  manner,  it  is 
something  in  their  favor  to  say  that  they  are  such  as  cannot  be 
answered  without  an  extensive  course  of  reading  in  Chinese 
literature.  One  question  under  each  of  the  five  heads  is  all  that 
our  space  will  allow  us  to  introduce. 

1.  "How  do  the  rival  schools  of  Wang  and  Ching  differ  in 
respect  to  the  exposition  of  the  meaning  and  the  criticism  of  the 
text  of  the  Book  of  Changes?" 

2.  "The  great  historian  Sze-ma-ts'ien   prides  himself  upon 
having  gathered  up  much  material  that  was  neglected  by  other 
writers.     What  are  the  sources  from  which  he  derived  his  in- 
formation ?" 

3.  "  From  the  earliest  times  great  attention  has  been  given  to 
the  improvement  of  agriculture.    Will  you  indicate  the  arrange- 
ments adopted  for  that  purpose  by  the  several  dynasties  ?" 

4.  "  The  art  of  war  arose  under  Hwangte,  forty-four  hundred 


52  CHINESE    EDUCATION",  ETC. 

years  ago.  Different  dynasties  have  since  that  time  adopted 
different  regulations  in  regard  to  the  use  of  militia  or  standing 
armies,  the  mode  of  raising  supplies  for  the  army,  etc.  Can  you 
state  these  briefly  ?" 

5.  "Give  an  account  of  the  circulating  medium  under  differ- 
ent dynasties,  and  state  how  the  currency  of  the  Sung  dynasty 
corresponded  with  our  use  of  paper  money  at  the  present  day." 

In  another  paper,  issued  on  a  similar  occasion,  astronomy  takes 
the  place  of  agriculture ;  but  the  questions  are  confined  to  such 
allusions  to  the  subject  as  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  circle  of 
their  classical  literature,  and  afford  but  little  scope  for  the  dis- 
play of  scientific  attainments.  Still,  the  fact  that  a  place  is  found 
for  this  class  of  subjects  is  full  of  hope.  It  indicates  that  the 
door,  if  not  fully  open,  is  at  least  sufficiently  ajar  to  admit  the 
introduction  of  our  Western  sciences  with  all  their  progeny  of 
arts,  a  band  powerful  enough  to  lift  the  Chinese  out  of  the  mists 
of  their  medieval  scholasticism,  and  to  bring  them  into  the  full 
light  of  modern  knowledge.  If  the  examiners  were  scientific 
men,  and  if  scientific  subjects  were  made  sufficiently  prominent 
in  these  higher  examinations,  millions  of  aspiring  students  would 
soon  become  as  earnest  in  the  pursuit  of  modern  science  as  they 
now  are  in  the  study  of  their  ancient  classics.*  Thus  reformed 
and  renovated  by  the  injection  of  fresh  blood  into  the  old  arte- 


*  As  a  sample  of  the  practical  bearing  which  it  is  possible  to  give  to 
these  examination  exercises,  we  take  a  few  questions  from  another  paper : 

"Fire-arms  began  with  the  use  of  rockets  in  the  Chau  dynasty  (B.C. 
1100);  in  what  book  do  we  first  meet  with  the  word  for  cannon?  What 
is  the  difference  in  the  two  classes  of  engines  to  which  it  is  applied  (ap- 
plied also  to  the  catapult)  ?  Is  the  defence  of  K'aifungfu  its  first  recorded 
use?  Kublai  Khan,  it  is  said,  obtained  cannon  of  a  new  kind ;  from  whom 
did  he  obtain  them?  The  Sungs  had  several  varieties  of  small  cannon, 
what  were  their  advantages  ?  When  the  Mings,  in  the  reign  of  Yungloh, 
invaded  Cochin-China,  they  obtained  a  kind  of  cannon  called  the  'weapons 
of  the  gods ;'  can  you  give  an  account  of  their  origin  ?" 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  53 

nes,  this  noble  institution  would  rise  to  the  dignity  of  a  great 
national  university — a  university  not  like  those  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  which  train  their  own  graduates,  but — to  compare 
great  things  with  small — like  the  University  of  London,  promot- 
ing the  cause  of  learning  by  examining  candidates  and  confer- 
ring degrees.  The  University  of  London  admits  to  its  initial 
examination  annually  about  fourteen  hundred  candidates,  and 
passes  one  half.  The  government  examinations  of  China  admit 
about  two  million  candidates  every  year,  and  pass  only  one  or 
two  per  cent. 

The  political  bearings  of  this  competitive  system  are  too  im- 
portant to  be  passed  over,  and  yet  too  numerous  to  be  treated 
in  detail.  Its  incidental  advantages  may  be  comprehended  under 
three  heads. 

1.  It  serves  the  State  as  a  safety-valve,  providing  a  career  for 
those  ambitious  spirits  which  might  otherwise  foment  disturb- 
ances or  excite  revolutions.     While  in  democratic  countries  the 
ambitious  flatter  the  people,  and  in  monarchies  fawn  on  the 
great,  in  China,  instead  of  resorting  to  dishonorable  arts  or  to 
political  agitation,  they  betake  themselves  to  quiet  study.    They 
know  that  their  mental  calibre  will  be  fairly  gauged,  and  that 
if  they  are  born  to  rule,  the  competitive  examinations  will  open 
to  them  a  career.     The  competitive  system  has  not,  indeed, 
proved  sufficient  to  employ  all  the  forces  that  tend  to  produce 
intestine  commotion ;  but  it  is  easy  to  perceive  that  without  it 
the  shocks  must  have  been  more  frequent  and  serious. 

2.  It  operates  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  power  of  an  absolute 
monarch.    Without  it  the  great  offices  would  be  filled  by  heredi- 
tary nobles,  and  the  minor  offices  be  farmed  out  by  thousands  to 
imperial  favorites.     With  it  a  man  of  talent  may  raise  himself 
from  the  humblest  ranks  to  the  dignity  of  viceroy  or  premier. 
Tsiang  siang  pun  wu  chuny — "  The  general  and  the  prime-min- 
ister are  not  born  in  office" — is  a  line  that  every  schoolboy  is 
taught  to  repeat.    Rising  from  the  people,  the  mandarins  under- 


54  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

stand  the  feelings  and  wants  of  the  people,  though  it  must  be 
confessed  that  they  are  usually  avaricious  and  oppressive  in  pro- 
portion to  the  length  of  time  it  has  taken  them  to  reach  their 
elevation.  Still,  they  have  the  support  and  sympathy  of  the 
people  to  a  greater  extent  than  they  could  have  if  they  were 
the  creatures  of  arbitrary  power.  The  system,  therefore,  intro- 
duces a  popular  element  into  the  government — a  check  on  the 
prerogative  of  the  Emperor  as  to  the  appointment  of  officers, 
and  serves  as  a  kind  of  constitution  to  his  subjects,  prescribing 
the  conditions  on  which  they  shall  obtain  a  share  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  power  of  the  State. 

3.  It  gives  the  government  a  hold  on  the  educated  gentry, 
and  binds  them  to  the  support  of  existing  institutions.  It  ren- 
ders the  educated  classes  eminently  conservative,  because  they 
know  that  in  the  event  of  a  revolution  civil  office  would  be  be- 
stowed, not  as  the  reward  of  learning,  but  for  political  or  mili- 
tary services.  The  literati,  the  most  influential  portion  of  the 
population,  are  for  this  reason  also  the  most  loyal.  It  is  their 
support  that  has  upheld  the  reigning  house,  though  of  a  foreign 
race,  through  these  long  years  of  civil  commotion,  while  to  the 
"  rebels  "  it  has  been  a  ground  of  reproach  and  a  source  of  weak- 
ness'that  they  have  had  but  few  literary  men  in  their  ranks. 

In  districts  where  the  people  have  distinguished  themselves 
by  zeal  in  the  Imperial  cause,  the  only  recompense  they  crave  is 
a"  slight  addition  to  the  numbers  on  the  competitive  prize-list. 
Such  additions  the  government  has  made  very  frequently  of  late 
years,  in  consideration  of  money  supplies.  It  has  also,  to  re- 
lieve its  exhausted  exchequer,  put  up  for  sale  the  decorations  of 
the  literary  orders,  and  issued  patents  admitting  contributors  to 
the  higher  examinations  without  passing  through  the  lower 
grades.  But  though  the  government  thus  debases  the  coin,  it 
guards  itself  jealously  against  the  issue  of  a  spurious  currency. 
Seven  years  ago  Peiching,  first  president  of  the  Examining 
Board  at  Peking,  was  put  to  death  for  having  fraudulently  con- 


COMPETITIVE    EXAMINATIONS    IN    CHINA.  55 

ferred  two  or  three  degrees.  The  fraud  was  limited  in  extent, 
but  the  damage  it  threatened  was  incalculable.  It  tended  to 
shake  the  confidence  of  the  people  in  the  administration  of  that 
branch  of  the  government  which  constituted  their  only  avenue 
to  honors  and  office.  Even  the  Emperor  cannot  tamper  with  it 
without  peril.  It  is  the  Chinaman's  ballot-box,  his  grand  charter 
of  rights;  though  the  Emperor  may  lower  its  demands,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  wishes  of  a  majority,  he  could  not  set  it  aside 
without  producing  a  revolution. 

Such  is  the  Chinese  competitive  system,  and  such  are  some  of 
its  advantages  and  defects.  May  it  not  be  feasible  to  graft  some- 
thing of  a  similar  character  on  our  own  republican  institutions? 
More  congenial  to  the  spirit  of  our  free  government,  it  might  be 
expected  to  yield  better  fruits  in  this  country  than  in  China.  In 
British  India  it  works  admirably.  In  Great  Britain,  too,  the  dip- 
lomatic and  consular  services  have  been  placed  on  a  competitive 
basis ;  and  something  of  the  kind  must  be  done  for  our  own 
foreign  service  if  we  wish  our  influence  abroad  to  be  at  all  com- 
mensurate with  our  greatness  and  prosperity  at  home.  When 
will  our  government  learn  that  a  good  consul  is  worth  more 
than  a  man-of-war,  and  that  an  able  minister  is  of  more  value 
than  a  whole  fleet  of  iron-clads?  To  secure  good  consuls  and 
able  ministers  we  must  choose  them  from  a  body  of  men  who 
have  been  picked  and  trained. 

In  effecting  these  reforms,  Mr.  Jenckes's  (of  Rhode  Island)  bill 
might  serve  as  an  entering  wedge.  It  would  secure  the  acknowl- 
edgment of  the  principle — certainly  not  alarmingly  revolution- 
ary— that  places  should  go  by  merit.  But  it  does  not  go  far 
enough.  "  It  does  not,"  he  says,  "  touch  places  which  are  to  be 
filled  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate.  It  would  not 
in  the  least  interfere  with  the  scramble  for  office  which  is  going 
on  at  the  other  end  of  the  Avenue,  or  which  fills  with  anxious 
crowds  the  corridors  of  the  other  wing  of  the  Capitol.  This 
measure,  it  should  be  remembered,  deals  only  with  the  inferior 


56  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

officers,  whose  appointment  is  made  by  the  President  alone,  or 
by  the  heads  of  departments." 

But  what  danger  is  there  of  infringing  on  the  rights  of  the 
Senate?  Is  there  anything  that  would  aid  the  Senate  so  much 
in  giving  their  "advice  and  consent"  as  the  knowledge  that  the 
applicants  for  confirmation  had  proved  their  competence  before 
a  Board  of  Examiners?  And  would  not  the  knowledge  of  the 
same  fact  lighten  the  burdens  of  the  President,  and  relieve  him 
of  much  of  the  difficulty  which  he  now  experiences  in  the  selec- 
tion of  qualified  men?  Such  an  arrangement  would  not  take 
away  the  power  of  executive  appointment,  but  regulate  its  exer- 
cise. Nor  would  it,  if  applied  to  elective  offices,  interfere  with 
the  people's  freedom  of  choice  further  than  to  insure  that  the 
candidates  should  be  men  of  suitable  qualifications.  It  may  not 
be  easy  to  prescribe  rules  for  that  popular  sovereignty  which 
follows  only  its  own  sweet  will,  but  it  is  humiliating  to  reflect 
that  our  "  mandarins"  are  so  far  from  being  the  most  intellectual 
class  of  the  community. 


INFLUENCE    OF   EDUCATION    ON    NATIONAL    CHARACTER.       57 


EDUCATION  IN  CHINA.* 

I.    INFLUENCE    ON    NATIONAL    CHARACTER. 

THE  interest  of  the  inquiry  on  which  we  are  about  to  enter  is 
based  on  the  assumption  that  differences  of  national  character 
are  mainly  due  to  the  influence  of  education.  This  we  conceive 

*  This  paper  was  first  published  in  1877  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education.  The  following  letter  of  the  late  Mr.  Avery,  United  States  Min- 
ister to  China,  may  serve  to  explain  its  origin  : 

"  To  the  Commissioner  of  Education. 

"  LEGATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  ) 
PEKING,  May  28,  1875.          ) 

"  SIR, — Before  my  departure  for  China,  I  received  from  you  a  request  to 
secure  for  use  by  your  Bureau  an  accurate  and  full  statement  of  the  meth- 
ods of  education  in  China,  and  'the  relation  of  the  methods  to  the  failure 
of  their  civilization.' 

"  On  my  arrival  at  Peking,  bearing  your  request  in  mind,  I  was  confirmed 
in  the  opinion  entertained  before,  that  to  no  one  else  could  I  apply  for  the 
information  desired  with  so  much  propriety  as  to  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin,  our 
fellow-countryman,  president  of  the  Imperial  College  for  Western  Science 
at  Peking,  whose  long  residence  in  China,  scholarly  knowledge  of  Chinese 
literature,  and  familiar  acquaintance  with  native  methods  of  education  must 
be  well  known  to  you. 

"  Dr.  Martin,  at  my  solicitation,  agreed  to  furnish  a  paper  on  the  subject 
you  indicated,  which  I  have  just  received  from  his  hands,  and  now  forward 
to  you  through  the  courtesy  of  the  State  Department.  I  scarcely  need  add 
that  you  will  find  it  alike  interesting  and  valuable.  In  connection  with  the 
subject  of  Dr.  Martin's  paper,  permit  me  to  call  your  attention  to  a  despatch 
written  by  S.  Wells  Williams,  then  charg6  d'affaires  at  this  legation,  to  the 
State  Department,  under  date  of  August  26, 1869,  numbered  58,  and  referrini; 
to  the  enormous  difficulties  of  the  Chinese  language,  whether  spoken  or 
written,  as  one  of  the  principal  obstacles  to  the  progress  of  this  people. 

3* 


58  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

to  be  true,  except  in  extreme  cases,  such  as  those  of  the  inhab- 
itants of  torrid  or  frigid  regions,  where  everything  succumbs  to 
the  tyranny  of  physical  forces.  In  such  situations  climate  shapes 
education,  as,  according  to  Montesquieu,  it  determines  morals 
and  dictates  laws.  But  in  milder  latitudes  the  difference  of 
physical  surroundings  is  an  almost  inappreciable  element  in  the 
formation  of  character  in  comparison  with  influences  of  an  in- 
tellectual and  moral  kind.  Much,  for  example,  is  said  about  the 
inspiration  of  mountain  scenery — an  inspiration  felt  most  sensi- 
bly, if  not  most  effectively,  by  those  who  see  the  mountains  least 
frequently  ;  but,  as  John  Foster  remarks,  the  character  of  a  lad 
brought  up  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  is  a  thousandfold  more  af- 
fected by  the  companions  with  whom  he  associates  than  by  the 
mountains  that  rear  their  heads  above  his  dwelling. 

The  peculiar  character  of  the  Chinese — for  they  have  a  char- 
acter which  is  one  and  distinct — is  not  to  be  accounted  for  by 
their  residence  in  great  plains,  for  half  the  empire  is  mountain- 
ous. Neither  is  it  to  be  ascribed  to  their  rice  diet,  as  rice  is  a 
luxury  in  which  few  of  the  northern  population  are  able  to  in- 
dulge. Still  less  is  it  to  be  referred  to  the  influence  of  climate, 
for  they  spread  over  a  broad  belt  in  their  own  country,  emigrate 
in  all  directions,  and  flourish  in  every  zone.  It  is  not  even  ex- 
plained by  the  unity  and  persistency  of  an  original  type,  for  in 
their  earlier  career  they  absorbed  and  assimilated  several  other 
races,  while  history  shows  that  at  different  epochs  their  own 
character  has  undergone  remarkable  changes.  The  true  secret 
of  this  phenomenon  is  the  presence  of  an  agency  which,  under 
our  own  eyes,  has  shown  itself  sufficiently  powerful  to  transform 
the  turbulent  nomadic  Manchu  into  the  most  Chinese  of  the  in- 

Dr.  Martin  touches  on  this  point,  but  it  did  not  enter  into  his  object  to  en- 
large upon  it  «' I  am,  sir, 

"  Your  obedient  servant, 

"  Hon.  JOHN  EATON,  "  BEKJ.  P.  AVERT. 

"  Commissioner  of  Education.^ 


HOME    EDUCATION.  59 

habitants  of  the  Middle  Kingdom.  The  general  name  for  that 
agency,  which  includes  a  thousand  elements,  is  education.  It  is 
education  that  has  imparted  a  uniform  stamp  to  the  Chinese 
under  every  variety  of  physical  condition ;  just  as  the  successive 
sheets  of  paper  applied  to  an  engraving  bring  away,  substan- 
tially, the  same  impression,  notwithstanding  differences  in  the 
quality  of  the  material. 

In  this  wide  sense  we  shall  not  attempt  to  treat  the  subject, 
though  it  may  not  be  out  of 'place  to  remark  that  the  Chinese 
themselves  employ  a  word  which  answers  to  education  with  a 
similar  latitude.  They  say,  for  instance,  that  the  education  of  a 
child  begins  before  its  birth.  The  women  of  ancient  times,  say 
they,  in  every  movement  had  regard  to  its  effect  on  the  character 
of  their  offspring.  This  they  denominate  kiao,  reminding  us  of 
what  Goethe  tells  us  in  his  autobiography  of  certain  antecedents 
which  had  their  effect  in  imparting  to  him 

"  That  concord  of  harmonious  powers 
Which  forms  the  soul  of  happiness." 

All  this,  whatever  its  value,  belongs  to  physical  discipline.  We 
shall  not  go  so  far  back  in  the  history  of  our  typical  Chinese, 
but,  confining  ourselves  strictly  to  the  department  of  intellectual 
influences,  take  him  at  the  time  when  the  young  idea  first  begins 
to  shoot,  and  trace  him  through  the  several  stages  of  his  devel- 
opment until  he  emerges  a  full-fledged  Academician.* 

II.    HOME    EDUCATION. 

With  us  the  family  is  the  first  school.  Not  only  is  it  here  that 
we  make  the  most  important  of  our  linguistic  acquirements,  but 

*  For  an  account  of  the  Hanlin  or  Imperial  Academy,  see  the  North 
American  Review  for  July,  1874,  where  much  may  be  found  to  supplement 
the  present  paper.  The  same  periodical  (some  time  in  1870)  contains  an 
article  by  the  present  writer  on  Civil-service  Competitive  Examinations  in 
China.  (I  leave  this  note  in  its  original  form,  though  the  papers  referred 
to  may  now  be  found  between  the  covers  of  the  present  volume.) 


60  CHINESE    EDUCATION,    ETC. 

with  parents  who  are  themselves  cultivated  there  is  generally  a 
persistent  effort  to  stimulate  the  mental  growth  of  their  offspring, 
to  develop  reason,  form  taste,  and  invigorate  the  memory. 

In  many  instances  parental  vanity  applies  a  spur  where  the 
curb  ought  to  be  employed,  and  a  sickly  precocity  is  the  result ; 
but  in  general  a  judicious  stimulus  addressed  to  the  mind  is  no 
detriment  to  the  body,  and  it  is  doubtless  to  the  difference  of 
domestic  training  rather  than  to  race  that  we  are  to  ascribe  the 
early  awaking  of  the  mental  potvers  of  European  children  as 
compared  with  those  of  China.  The  Chinese  have,  it  is  true, 
their  stories  of  infant  precocity — their  Barretiers  and  Chatter- 
tons.  They  tell  of  Li-muh,  who,  at  the  age  of  seven,  was  thought 
worthy  of  the  degree  of  tsin-shi,  or  the  literary  doctorate,  and  of 
Hie-tsin,  the  "  divine  child,"  who,  at  the  age  of  ten,  composed  a 
volume  of  poems,  still  in  use  as  a  juvenile  text-book.  But  these 
are  not  merely  exceptions;  they  are  exceptions  of  rarer  occur- 
rence than  among  us. 

The  generality  of  Chinese  children  do  not  get  their  hands  and 
feet  so  soon  as  ours,  because,  in  the  first  months  of  their  exist- 
ence, they  are  tightly  swathed  and  afterwards  overloaded  with 
cumbrous  garments.  The  reason  for  their  tardier  mental  devel- 
opment is  quite  analogous.  European  children  exhibit  more 
thought  at  five  than  Chinese  children  at  twice  that  age.  This  is 
not  a  partial  judgment,  nor  is  the  fact  to  be  accounted  for  by  a 
difference  of  race ;  for  in  mental  capacity  the  Chinese  are,  in  my 
opinion,  not  inferior  to  the  "most  favored  nation."  Deprive 
our  nurseries  of  those  speaking  pictures  that  say  so  much  to  the 
infant  eye ;  of  infant  poems,  such  as  those  of  Watts  and  Bar- 
bauld ;  of  the  sweet  music  that  impresses  those  poems  on  the 
infant  mind ;  more  than  all,  take  away  those  Bible  stories  and 
scraps  of  history  which  excite  a  thirst  for  the  books  that  con- 
tain them,  and  what  a  check  upon  mental  growth,  what  a  deduc- 
tion from  the  happiness  of  childhood !  With  us  the  dawn  of 
knowledge  precedes  the  use  of  books,  as  the  rays  of  morning, 


HOME    EDUCATION.  61 

refracted  by  the  atmosphere  and  glowing  with  rosy  hues,  antici- 
pate the  rising  of  the  sun.  In  China  there  is  no  such  accommo- 
dating medium,  no  such  blushing  aurora.  The  language  of  the 
fireside  is  not  the  language  of  the  books. 

Mothers  and  nurses  are  not  taught  to  read ;  nor  are  fathers 
less  inclined  than  with  us  to  leave  the  work  of  instruction  to  be 
begun  by  the  professional  teacher.  This  they  are  the  more  dis- 
posed to  do,  as  an  ancient  maxim,  sanctioned  by  classic  authority, 
prohibits  a  parent  being  the  instructor  of  his  own  children ;  still 
some  fathers,  yielding  to  better  instincts,  do  take  a  pride  in 
teaching  their  infant  sons ;  and  some  mothers,  whose  exceptional 
culture  makes  them  shine  like  stars  in  the  night  of  female  igno- 
rance, have  imparted  to  their  children  the  first  impulse  in  a 
literary  career. 

How  many  of  those  who  have  obtained  seats  in  the  literary 
Olympus  were  favored  with  such  early  advantages  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  ascertain.  That  the  number  is  considerable,  we  cannot 
doubt.  We  remember  hearing  of  two  scholars  in  Chekiang  who 
were  not  only  taught  the  mechanical  art  of  writing,  but  the 
higher  art  of  composition,  by  an  educated  mother,  both  of  them 
winning  the  honors  of  the  Academy. 

As  another  instance  of  the  same  kind,  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Academy  embalm  the  memory  of  such  a  noble  mother  along 
with  the  name  of  her  illustrious  son,  the  Emperor  Kienlung, 
with  vermilion  pencil,  celebrating  the  talents  of  the  one  and  the 
virtues  of  the  other. 

Dropping  the  "  meed  of  a  melodious  tear"  on  the  grave  of  an 
eminent  literary  servant,  Chien-chen-keun,  a  member  of  the 
Hanlin,  the  Emperor  says,  "  He  drew  his  learning  from  a  hid- 
den source,  a  virtuous  mother  imparting  to  him  her  classic 
lore."  In  the  prose  obituary  prefixed  to  the  verses,  his  Majesty 
says,  "Chien's  mother,  Lady  Chen,  was  skilled  in  ornamental 
writing.  In  his  boyhood  it  was  she  who  inspired  and  directed 
his  studies.  He  had  a  painting  which  represented  his  mother 


62  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

holding  a  distaff  and  at  the  same  time  explaining  to  him  the 
classic  page.  I  admired  it,  and  inscribed  on  it  a  complimentary 
verse."  A  graceful  tribute  from  an  exalted  hand,  worth  more, 
in  the  estimation  of  the  Chinese,  than  all  the  marble  or  granite 
that  might  be  heaped  upon  her  sepulchre. 

III.    COMMENCEMENT    OF    SCHOOL    LIFE. 

In  general,  however,  a  Chinese  home  is  not  a  hot-bed  for  the 
development  of  mind.  Nature  is  left  to  take  her  own  time,  and 
the  child  vegetates  until  he  completes  his  seventh  or  eighth 
year.  The  almanac  is  then  consulted,  and  a  lucky  day  chosen 
for  inducting  the  lad  into  a  life  of  study.  Clad  in  festal  robe, 
with  tasselled  cap,  and  looking  a  mandarin  in  small,  he  sets  out 
for  the  village  school,  his  face  beaming  with  the  happy  assur- 
ance that  all  the  stars  are  shedding  kindly  influence,  and  his 
friends  predicting  that  he  will  end  his  career  in  the  Imperial 
Academy.  On  entering  the  room,  he  performs  two  acts  of  wor- 
ship :  the  first  is  to  prostrate  himself  before  a  picture  of  the 
Great  Sage,  who  is  venerated  as  the  fountain  of  wisdom,  but  is 
not  supposed  to  exercise  over  his  votaries  anything  like  a  tutelar 
supervision.  The  second  is  to  salute  with  the  same  forms,  and 
almost  equal  reverence,  the  teacher  who  is  to  guide  his  inex- 
perienced feet  in  the  pathway  to  knowledge.  In  no  country  is 
the  office  of  teacher  more  revered.  Not  only  is  the  living  in- 
structor saluted  with  forms  of  profoundest  respect,  but  the  very 
name  of  teacher,  taken  in  the  abstract,  is  an  object  of  almost 
idolatrous  homage.  On  certain  occasions  it  is  inscribed  on  a 
tablet  in  connection  with  the  characters  for  heaven,  earth,  prince, 
and  parents,  as  one  of  the  five  chief  objects  of  veneration,  and 
worshipped  with  solemn  rites.  This  is  a  relic  of  the  primitive 
period,  when  books  were  few  and  the  student  dependent  for 
everything  on  the  oral  teaching  of  his  sapient  master.  In  those 
days,  in  Eastern  as  well  as  Western  Asia  and  Greece,  schools 
were  peripatetic,  or  (as  Jeremy  Taylor  says  of  the  Church  in  his 


COMMENCEMENT    OF    SCHOOL    LIFE.  63 

time)  ambulatory.  Disciples  were  wont  to  attend  their  master 
by  day  and  night,  and  follow  him  on  his  peregrinations  from 
State  to  State,  in  order  to  catch  and  treasure  up  his  most  casual 
discourses. 

As  to  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  they  were  at  a  great  disad- 
vantage compared  with  modern  students,  whose  libraries  con- 
tain books  by  the  thousand,  while  their  living  teachers  are  count- 
ed by  the  score.  Yet  the  student  life  of  those  days  was  not 
without  its  compensating  circumstances.  Practical  morality, 
the  formation  of  character,  was  the  great  object,  intellectual  dis- 
cipline being  deemed  subordinate ;  and  in  such  a  state  of  society 
physical  culture  was,  of  course,  not  neglected.  The  personal 
character  of  the  teacher  made  a  profound  impression  on  his 
pupils,  inspiring  them  with  ardor  in  the  pursuit  of  virtue ;  while 
the  necessity  of  learning  by  question  and  answer  excited  a  spirit 
of  inquiry  and  favored  originality  of  thought.  But  now  all  this 
is  changed,  and  the  names  and  forms  continue  without  the 
reality. 

A  man  who  never  had  a  dozen  thoughts  in  all  his  life  sits  in 
the  seat  of  the  philosophers  and  receives  with  solemn  ceremony 
the  homage  of  his  disciples.  And  why  not  ?  For  every  step  in 
the  process  of  teaching  is  fixed  by  unalterable  usage.  So  much 
is  this  the  case  that  in  describing  one  school  I  describe  all,  and 
in  tracing  the  steps  of  one  student  I  point  out  the  course  of  all ; 
for  in  China  there  are  no  new  methods  or  short  roads. 

In  other  countries,  a  teacher,  even  in  the  primary  course, 
finds  room  for  tact  and  originality.  In  those  who  dislike  study 
a  love  of  it  is  to  be  inspired  by  making  "  knowledge  pleasant  to 
the  taste,"  and  the  dull  apprehension  is  to  be  awakened  by 
striking  and  apt  illustrations ;  while,  to  the  eager  and  industri- 
ous, "steps  to  Parnassus"  are,  if  not  made  easy,  at  least  to  be 
pointed  out  so  clearly  that  they  shall  waste  no  strength  in  climb- 
ing by  wrong  paths.  In  China  there  is  nothing  of  this.  The 
land  of  uniformity,  all  processes  in  arts  and  letters  are  as  much 


64  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

fixed  by  universal  custom  as  is  the  cut  of  their  garments  or  the 
mode  of  wearing  their  hair.  The  pupils  all  tread  the  path  trod- 
den by  their  ancestors  of  a  thousand  years  ago,  nor  has  it  grown 
smoother  by  the  attrition  of  so  many  feet. 

IV.    STAGES    OF    STUDY. 

The  undergraduate  course  may  be  divided  into  three  stages, 
in  each  of  which  there  are  two  leading  studies : 

In  the  first,  the  occupations  of  the  student  are  committing  to 
memory  (not  reading)  the  canonical  books  and  writing  ap  in- 
finitude of  diversely  formed  characters  as  a  manual  exercise. 

In  the  second,  they  are  the  translation  of  his  text-books  (i.  e. 
reading)  and  lessons  in  composition. 

In  the  third,  they  are  belles-lettres  and  the  composition  of 
essays. 

Nothing  could  be  more  dreary  than  the  labors  of  the  first 
stage.  The  pupil  comes  to  school,  as  one  of  his  books  tells 
him,  "  a  rough  gem,  that  requires  grinding ;"  but  the  process  is 
slow  and  painful.  His  books  are  in  a  dead  language,  for  in 
every  part  of  the  Empire  the  style  of  literary  composition  is  so 
far  removed  from  that  of  the  vernacular  speech  that  books, 
when  read  aloud,  are  unintelligible  even  to  the  ear  of  the 
educated,  and  the  sounds  of  their  characters  convey  absolutely 
no  meaning  to  the  mind  of  a  beginner.  Nor,  as  a  general 
thing,  is  any  effort  made  to  give  them  life  by  imparting  glimpses 
of  their  signification.  The  whole  of  this  first  stage  is  a  dead 
lift  of  memory,  unalleviated  by  the  exercise  of  any  other  facul- 
ty. It  is  something  like  what  we  should  have  in  our  Western 
schools  if  our  youth  were  restricted  to  the  study  of  Latin  as 
their  sole  occupation,  and  required  to  stow  away  in  their  mem- 
ory the  contents  of  the  principal  classics  before  learning  a 
word  of  their  meaning. 

The  whole  of  the  Four  Books  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Five 
Classics  are  usually  gone  through  in  this  manner,  four  or  five 


STAGES    OF    STUDY.  65 

years  being  allotted  to  the  cheerless  task.  During  all  this  time 
the  mind  has  not  been  enriched  by  a  single  idea.  To  get  words 
at  the  tongue's  end  and  characters  at  the  pencil's  point  is  the 
sole  object  of  this  initial  discipline.  It  would  seem,  indeed,  as 
if  the  wise  ancients  who  devised  it  had  dreaded  nothing  so 
much  as  early  development,  and,  like  prudent  horticulturists,  re- 
sorted to  this  method  for  the  purpose  of  heaping  snow  and  ice 
around  the  roots  of  the  young  plant  to  guard  against  its  pre- 
mature blossoming.  All  the  arrangements  of  the  system  are 
admirably  adapted  to  form  a  safeguard  against  precocity.  Even 
the  stimulus  of  companionship  in  study  is  usually  denied,  the 
advantages  resulting  from  the  formation  of  classes  being  as  lit- 
tle appreciated  as  those  of  other  labor-saving  machinery.  Each 
pupil  reads  and  writes  alone,  the  penalty  for  failure  being  so 
many  blows  with  the  ferule  or  kneeling  for  so  many  minutes  on 
the  rough  brick  pavement  which  serves  for  a  floor. 

At  this  period  fear  is  the  strongest  motive  addressed  to  the 
mind  of  the  scholar ;  nor  is  it  easy  to  say  how  large  a  share  this 
stern  discipline  has  in  giving  him  his  first  lesson  in  political 
duty — viz.,  that  of  unquestioning  submission — and  in  rendering 
him  cringing  and  pliant  towards  official  superiors.  Those  sallies 
of  innocent  humor  and  venial  mischief  so  common  in  Western 
schools  are  rarely  witnessed  in  China. 

A  practical  joke  in  which  the  scholars  indulged  at  the  ex- 
pense of  their  teacher  I  have  seen  represented  in  a  picture,  but 
never  in  real  life.  The  picture,  the  most  graphic  I  ever  saw 
from  a  Chinese  pencil,  adorns  the  walls  of  a  monastery  at  the 
Western  Hills,  near  Peking.  It  represents  a  village  school,  the 
master  asleep  in  his  chair  and  the  pupils  playing  various  pranks, 
the  least  of  which,  if  the  tyrant  should  happen  to  awake,  would 
bring  down  his  terrible  baton.  But,  notwithstanding  the  danger 
to  which  they  expose  themselves,  two  of  the  young  unterrified 
stand  behind  the  throne,  threatening  to  awake  the  sleeper  by 
tickling  his  ear  with  the  tail  of  a  scorpion. 


66  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

So  foreign,  indeed,  is  this  scene  from  the  habits  of  Chinese 
schoolboys  that  I  feel  compelled  to  take  it  in  a  mystic  rather 
than  a  literal  signification.  The  master  is  reason,  the  boys  are 
the  passions,  and  the  scorpion  conscience.  If  passion  gets  at 
the  ear  of  the  soul  while  reason  sleeps,  the  stings  of  conscience 
are  sure  to  follow — those 

"  Pangs  that  pay  joy's  spendthrift  thrill 
With  bitter  usury." 

Thus  understood,  it  conveys  a  moral  alike  worthy  of  Christian 
or  Buddhist  ethics. 

Severity  is  accounted  the  first  virtue  in  a  pedagogue ;  and  its 
opposite  is  not  kindness,  but  negligence.  In  family  schools, 
where  the  teacher  is  well  watched,  he  is  reasonably  diligent  and 
sufficiently  severe  to  satisfy  the  most  exacting  of  his  patrons. 
In  others,  and  particularly  in  charity  -  schools,  the  portrait  of 
Squeers  in  Nicholas  Nickleby  would  be  no  caricature.  With 
modifications  and  improvements  in  the  curriculum,  a  teacher  has 
nothing  to  do.  His  business  is  to  keep  the  mill  going,  and  the 
time-honored  argument  a  posteriori  is  the  only  persuasion  he 
cares  to  appeal  to. 

This  arctic  winter  of  monotonous  toil  once  passed,  a  more 
auspicious  season  dawns  on  the  youthful  understanding.  The 
key  of  the  Cabala  which  he  has  been  so  long  and  so  blindly  ac- 
quiring is  put  into  his  hands.  He  is  initiated  in  the  translation 
and  exposition  of  those  sacred  books  which  he  had  previously 
stored  away  in  his  memory,  as  if  apprehensive  lest  another  ty- 
rant of  Tsin  might  attempt  their  destruction.  The  light,  how- 
ever, is  let  in  but  sparingly,  as  it  were,  through  chinks  and  rifts 
in  the  long  dark  passage.  A  simple^haracter  here  and  there  is 
explained,  and  then,  it  may  be  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  or  two, 
the  teacher  proceeds  to  the  explication  of  entire  sentences.  Now 
for  the  first  time  the  mind  of  the  student  begins  to  take  in  the 
thoughts  of  those  he  has  been  taught  to  regard  as  the  oracles  of 
wisdom.  His  dormant  faculties  wake  into  sudden  life,  and,  as 


STAGES    OF    STUDY.  07 

it  would  seem,  unfold  the  more  rapidly  in  consequence  of  their 
protracted  hibernation.     To  him  it  is  like 

"  The  glorious  hour  when  spring  goes  forth 
O'er  the  bleak  mountains  of  the  shadowy  north, 
And  with  one  radiant  glance,  one  magic  breath, 
Wakes  all  things  lovely  from  the  sleep  of  death." 

The  value  of  this  exercise  can  hardly  be  overestimated.  When 
judiciously  employed,  it  does  for  the  Chinese  what  translation 
into  and  out  of  the  dead  languages  of  the  West  does  for  us.  It 
calls  into  play  memory,  judgment,  taste,  and  gives  him  a  com- 
mand of  his  own  vernacular  which,  it  is  safe  to  assert,  he  would 
never  acquire  in  any  other  way.  Yet  even  here  I  am  not  able 
to  bestow  unqualified  commendation.  This  portion  of  the  course 
is  rendered  too  easy ;  as  much  too  easy  as  the  preceding  is  too 
difficult.  Instead  of  requiring  a  lad,  dictionary  in  hand,  to  quar- 
ry out  the  meaning  of  his  author,  the  teacher  reads  the  lesson 
for  him,  and  demands  of  him  nothing  more  than  a  faithful  re- 
production of  that  which  he  has  received ;  memory  again,  sheer 
memory !  Desirable  as  this  method  might  be  for  beginners, 
when  continued,  as  the  Chinese  do  through  the  whole  course,  it 
has  the  inevitable  effect  of  impairing  independence  of  judgment 
and  fertility  of  invention — qualities  for  which  Chinese  scholars 
are  hy  no  means  remarkable,  and  for  the  deficiency  of  which 
they  are,  no  doubt,  indebted  to  this  error  of  schoolroom  disci- 
pline. 

Simultaneously  with  translation  the  student  is  initiated  in  the 
art  of  composition — an  art  which,  in  any  language,  yields  to 
nothing  but  practice.  In  Chinese  it  is  beset  with  difficulties  of 
a  peculiar  kind.  In  the  'majority  of  cultivated  languages  the 
syntax  is  governed  by  rules,  while  inflections,  like  mortise  and 
tenon,  facilitate  the  structure  of  the  sentence. 

Not  so  in  this  most  primitive  form  of  human  speech.  Verbs 
and  nouns  are  undistinguished  by  any  difference  of  form,  the 
verb  having  no  voice,  mood,  or  tense,  and  the  noun  neither  gen- 


68  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

der,  number,  nor  person.  Collocation  is  ever)* thing ;  it  creates 
the  parts  of  speech  and  determines  the  signification  of  char- 
acters. The  very  simplicity  of  the  linguistic  structure  thus 
proves  a  source  of  difficulty,  preventing  the  formation  of  any 
such  systems  of  grammatical  rules  as  abound  in  most  inflected 
languages,  and  throwing  the  burden  of  acquisition  on  the  imi- 
tative faculty ;  the  problem  being,  not  the  erection  of  a  fabric 
from  parts  which  are  adjusted  and  marked,  but  the  building  of 
an  arch  with  cobble-stones. 

If  these  uniform,  unclassified  atoms  were  indifferent  to  posi- 
tion, the  labor  of  arrangement  would  be  nothing,  and  style  im- 
possible. But  most  of  them  appear  to  be  endowed  with  a  kind 
of  mysterious  polarity  which  controls  their  collocation,  and  ren- 
ders them  incapable  of  companionship  except  with  certain  char- 
acters, the  choice  of  which  would  seem  to  be  altogether  arbitra- 
ry. The  origin  of  this  peculiarity  is  not  difficult  to  discover. 
In  this,  as  in  other  things  among  the  Chinese,  usage  has  become 
law.  Combinations  which  were  accidental  or  optional  with  the 
model  writers  of  antiquity,  and  even  their  errors,  have,  to  their 
imitative  posterity,  become  the  jus  et  norma  loquendi.  Free  to 
move  upon  each  other  when  the  language  was  young  and  in  a 
fluid  state,  its  elements  have  now  become  crystallized  into  in- 
variable forms.  To  master  this  pre-established  harmony  with- 
out the  aid  of  rules  is  the  fruit  of  practice  and  the  labor  of 
years. 

The  first  step  in  composition  is  the  yoking  together  of  double 
characters.  The  second  is  the  reduplication  of  these  binary 
compounds  and  the  construction  of  parallels — an  idea  which 
runs  so  completely  through  the  whole  of  Chinese  literature  that 
the  mind  of  the  student  requires  to  be  imbued  with  it  at  the 
very  outset.  This  is  the  way  he  begins :  The  teacher  writes 
"  Wind  blows,"  the  pupil  adds  "  Rain  falls ;"  the  teacher  writes 
"  Rivers  are  long,"  the  pupil  adds  "  Seas  are  deep  "  or  "  Moun- 
tains are  high,"  etc. 


STAGES    OF    STUDY.  69 

From  the  simple  subject  and  predicate,  which  in  their  rude 
grammar  they  describe  as  "  dead  "  and  "  living  "  characters,  the 
teacher  conducts  his  pupil  to  more  complex  forms,  in  which 
qualifying  words  and  phrases  are  introduced.  He  gives  as  a 
model  some  such  phrase  as  "The  Emperor's  grace  is  vast  as 
heaven  and  earth,"  and  the  lad  matches  it  by  "  The  sovereign's 
favor  is  profound  as  lake  and  sea."  These  couplets  often  con- 
tain two  propositions  in  each  member,  accompanied  by  all  the 
usual  modifying  terms ;  and  so  exact  is  the  symmetry  required 
by  the  rules  of  the  art  that  not  only  must  noun,  verb,  adjective, 
and  particle  respond  to  ^ach  other  with  scrupulous  exactness, 
but  the  very  tones  of  the  characters  are  adjusted  to  each  other 
with  the  precision  of  music. 

Begun  with  the  first  strokes  of  his  untaught  pencil,  the  stu- 
dent, whatever  his  proficiency,  never  gets  beyond  the  construc- 
tion of  parallels.  When  he  becomes  a  member  of  the  Institute 
or  a  minister  of  the  Imperial  Cabinet,  at  classic  festivals  and 
social  entertainments  the  composition  of  impromptu  couplets, 
formed  on  the  old  model,  constitutes  a  favorite  pastime.  Re- 
flecting a  poetic  image  from  every  syllable,  or  concealing  the 
keen  point  of  a  cutting  epigram,  they  afford  a  fine  vehicle  for 
sallies  of  wit;  and  poetical  contests  such  as  that  of  Meliboeus 
and  Menalcas  are  in  China  matters  of  daily  occurrence.  If  a 
present  is  to  be  given,  on  the  occasion  of  a  marriage,  a  birthday, 
or  any  other  remarkable  occasion,  nothing  is  deemed  so  elegant 
or  acceptable  as  a  pair  of  scrolls  inscribed  with  a  complimentary 
distich. 

When  the  novice  is  sufficiently  exercised  in  the  "parallels" 
for  the  idea  of  symmetry  to  have  become  an  instinct,  he  is  per- 
mitted to  advance  to  other  species  of  composition  which  afford 
freer  scope  for  his  faculties.  Such  are  the  shotiah,  in  which  a 
single  thought  is  expanded  in  simple  language;  the  lun,  the  for- 
mal discussion  of  a  subject  more  or  less  extended,  and  episth-s 
addressed  to  imaginary  persons  and  adapted  to  all  conceivable 


70  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

circumstances.  In  these  last,  the  forms  of  the  "  complete  letter- 
writer  "  are  copied  with  too  much  servility ;  but  in  the  other 
two,  substance  being  deemed  of  more  consequence  than  form, 
the  new-fledged  thought  is  permitted  to  essay  its  powers  and  to 
expatiate  with  but  little  restraint. 

In'the  third  stage,  composition  is  the  leading  object,  reading 
being  wholly  subsidiary.  It  takes,  for  the  most  part,  the  arti- 
ficial form  of  verse,  and  of  a  kind  of  prose  called  wen-chang, 
which  is,  if  possible,  still  more  artificial.  The  reading  required 
embraces  mainly  rhetorical  models  and  sundry  anthologies.  His- 
tory is  studied,  but  only  that  of  China,  and  that  only  in  com- 
pends ;  not  for  its  lessons  of  wisdom,  but  for  the  sake  of  the 
allusions  with  which  it  enables  a  writer  to  embellish  classic  es- 
says. The  same  may  be  said  of  other  studies ;  knowledge  and 
mental  discipline  are  at  a  discount,  and  style  at. a  premium.  The 
goal  of  the  long  course,  the  flower  and  fruit  of  the  whole  sys- 
tem, is  the  wen-chang ;  for  this  alone  can  insure  success  in  the 
public  examinations  for  the  civil  service,  in  which  students  be- 
gin to  adventure  soon  after  entering  on  the  third  stage  of  their 
preparatory  course. 

The  examinations  we  reserve  for  subsequent  consideration, 
and  in  that  connection  we  shall  notice  the  wen-chang  more  at 
length.  We  may,  however,  remark  in  passing  that  to  propose 
such  an  end  as  the  permanent  object  of  pursuit  must  of  neces- 
sity have  the  effect  of  rendering  education  superficial.  In  our 
own  xmiversities  surface  is  aimed  at  rather  than  depth ;  but 
what,  we  may  ask,  besides  an  empty  glitter  would  remain  if 
none  of  our  students  aspired  to  anything  better  than  to  become 
popular  newspaper-writers  ?  Yet  successful  essayists  and  penny- 
a-liners  require  as  a  preparation  for  their  functions  a  substra- 
tum of  solid  information.  They  have  to  exert  themselves  to 
keep  abreast  of  an  age  in  which  great  facts  and  great  thoughts 
vibrate  instantaneously  throughout  a  hemisphere.  But  the  idea 
of  progressive  knowledge  is  alien  to  the  nature  of  the  wen-chang. 


GRADES    OF    SCHOOLS.  l 

A  juster  parallel  for  the  intense  and  fruitless  concentration  of 
energy  on  this  species  of  composition  is  the  passion  for  Latin 
verse  which  was  dominant  in  our  halls  of  learning  until  de- 
throned by  the  rise  of  modern  science. 

V.    GRADES    OF    SCHOOLS. 

The  division  of  the  undergraduate  course  into  the  three  stages 
which  we  have  described  gives  rise  to  three  classes  of  schools: 
the  primary,  in  which  little  is  attended  to  beyond  memoriter 
recitation  and  imitative  chirography ;  the  middle,  in  which  the 
canonical  books  are  expounded;  and  the  classical,  in  which 
composition  is  the  leading  exercise.  Not  unfrequently  all  three 
departments  are  embraced  in  one  and  the  same  school ;  and  still 
more  frequently  the  single  department  professed  is  so  neglected 
as  to  render  it  utterly  abortive  for  any  useful  purpose.  This,  as 
we  have  elsewhere  intimated,  is  particularly  the  case  with  what 
are  called  public  schools.  National  schools  there  are  none,  with 
the  exception  of  those  at  the  capital  for  the  education  of  the 
Banncrmeri,  originally  established  on  a  liberal  scale,  but  now  so 
neglected  that  they  can  scarcely  be  reckoned  among  existing 
institutions. 

A  further  exception  may  be  made  in  favor  of  schools  opened 
in  various  places  by  provincial  officers  for  special  purposes ;  but 
it  is  still  true  that  China  has  nothing  approaching  to  a  system 
of  common-schools  designed  to  diffuse  among  the  masses  the 
blessings  of  a  popular  education.  Indeed,  education  is  system- 
atically left  to  private  enterprise  and  public  charity ;  the  gov- 
ernment contenting  itself  with  gathering  the  choicest  fruits  and 
encouraging  production  by  suitable  rewards.  A  government 
that  does  this  cannot  be  accused  of  neglecting  the  interests  of 
education,  though  the  beneficial  influence  of  such  patronage  sel- 
dom penetrates  to  the  lower  strata  of  society. 

Even  higher  institutions,  those  that  bear  the  name  of  colleges, 
are,  for  the  most  part,  left  to  shift  for  themselves  on  the  same 


72  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

principle.  Snch  colleges  differ  little  from  schools  of  the  middle 
and  higher  class,  except  in  the  number  of  professors  and  stu- 
dents ;  the  professors,  however  numerous,  teaching  nothing  but 
the  Chinese  language,  and  the  students,  however  long  they  may 
remain  in  the  institution,  studying  nothing  but  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage*. Colleges  in  the  modern  sense,  as  institutions  in  which  the 
several  sciences  are  taught  by  men  who  are  specially  expert,  are, 
as  yet,  almost  unknown.  But  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
government  will  soon  perceive  the  necessity  of  supplying  its  peo- 
ple with  the  means  of  a  higher,  broader  culture  than  they  can 
derive  from  the  grammar  and  rhetoric  of  their  own  language. 

In  establishing  an.l  contributing  to  the  support  of  schools, 
the  gentry  are  exceedingly  liberal ;  but  they  are  not  always 
careful  to  see  that  their  schools  are  conducted  in  an  efficient 
manner.  In  China  nothing  flourishes  without  the  stimulus  of 
private  interest.  Accordingly,  all  who  can  afford  to  do  so  en- 
deavor to  employ  private  instructors  for  their  own  families; 
and  where  a  single  family  is  unable  to  meet  the  expense,  two  or 
three  of  the  same  clan  or  family  name  are  accustomed  to  club 
together  for  that  object. 

Efforts  for  the  promotion  of  education  are  specially  encour- 
aged by  enlightened  magistrates.  Recently,  over  three  hundred 
new  schools  were  reported  as  opened  in  one  department  of  the 
Province  of  Canton  as  the  result  of  official  influence,  but  not  at 
government  expense.  The  Emperor,  too,  has  a  way  of  bringing 
his  influence  to  bear  on  this  object  without  drawing  a  farthing 
from  his  exchequer.  I  shall  mention  three  instances  by  way  of 
illustration. 

Last  year,  in  Shantung,  a  man  of  literary  standing  contributed 
four  acres  of  ground  for  the  establishment  of  a  village  school. 
The  governor  recommended  him  to  the  notice  of  the  Emperor, 
and  his  Majesty  conferred  on  him  the  titular  rank  of  professor 
in  the  Kwotszekien,  or  Confucian  College. 

Three  or  four  years  ago,  in  the  Province  of  Ilupeh,  a  retired 


GRADES    OF    SCHOOLS.  73 

officer  of  the  grade  of  Tautai,  or  intendant  of  circuit,  contrib- 
uted twenty  thousand  taels  for  the  endowment  of  a  college  at 
Wuchang.  The  Viceroy  Li-Han-Chang  reporting  to  the  throne 
this  act  of  munificence,  the  Chinese  Peabody  was  rewarded  by 
the  privilege  of  wearing  a  red  button  instead  of  a  blue  one,  and 
inscribing  on  his  card  the  title  of  provincial  judge. 

The  third  instance  is  that  of  a  college  in  Kwei-Lin-Foo,  the 
capital  of  Quangsi.  Falling  into  decay  and  ruin  during  the 
long  years  of  the  Taiping  rebellion,  the  gentry,  on  the  return 
of  peace,  raised  contributions,  repaired  the  building,  and  started 
it  again  in  successful  operation.  The  governor  solicits  on  be- 
half of  these  public-spirited  citizens  some  marks  of  the  Imperial 
approbation ;  and  his  Majesty  sends  them  a  laudatory  inscrip- 
tion written  by  the  elegant  pencils  of  the  Hanlin. 

But  private  effort,  however  stimulated,  is  utterly  inadequate 
to  the  wants  of  the  public.  In  Western  countries  the  enormous 
exertions  of  religious  societies,  prompted  as  they  are  by  pious 
zeal  enhanced  by  sectarian  rivalry,  have  always  fallen  short  of 
the  educational  necessities  of  the  masses.  It  is  well  understood 
that  no  system  of  schools  can  ever  succeed  in  reaching  all  classes 
of  the  people  unless  it  has  its  roots  in  the  national  revenue. 

In  China,  what  with  the  unavoidable  limitation  of  private  ef- 
fort and  the  deplorable  inefficiency  of  charity-schools,  but  a 
small  fraction  of  the  youth  have  the  advantages  of  the  most 
elementary  education  brought  within  their  reach. 

I  do  not  here  speak  of  the  almost  total  absence  of  schools 
for  girls,  for  against  these  Chinese  are  principled.  The  govern- 
ment, having  no  demand  for  the  services  of  women  in  official 
posts,  makes  no  provision  for  their  education ;  and  popular 
opinion  regards  reading  and  writing  as  dangerous  arts  in  female 
hands.  If  a  woman,  however,  by  any  chance,  emerging  from 
the  shaded  hemisphere  to  which  social  prejudices  have  consign- 
ed her  (si  qua  fata  aspera  rumpat),  vindicates  for  herself  a  po- 
sition among  the  historians,  poets,  or  scholars  of  the  land,  she 

4 


74  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

never  fails  to  be  greeted  with  even  more  than  her  proper  share 
of  public  admiration.  Such  instances  induce  indulgent  fathers 
now  and  then  to  cultivate  the  talents  of  a  clever  daughter,  and 
occasionally  neighborhood  schools  for  the  benefit  of  girls  are 
to  be  met  with ;  but  the  Chinese  people  have  yet  to  learn  that 
the  best  provision  they  could  make  for  the  primary  education 
of  their  sons  would  be  to  educate  the  mothers,  and  that  the 
education  of  the  mothers  could  not  fail  to  improve  the  intel- 
lectual character  of  their  offspring.  But  even  for  the  more 
favored  sex  the  facilities  for  obtaining  an  education  are  sadly 
deficient;  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  youth  attend  school, 
and,  owing  to  the  absurd  method  which  we  have  described,  few 
of  them  advance  far  enough  to  be  initiated  into  the  mysteries 
of  ideography. 

On  this  subject  a  false  impression  has  gone  abroad.  We  hear 
it  asserted  that  "  education  is  universal  in  China ;  even  coolies 
are  taught  to  read  and  write."  In  one  sense  this  is  true,  but  not 
as  we  understand  the  terms  "  reading  and  writing."  In  the  al- 
phabetical vernaculars  of  the  West  the  ability  to  read  and  write 
implies  the  ability  to  express  one's  thoughts  by  the  pen,  and  to 
grasp  the  thoughts  of  others  when  so  expressed.  In  Chinese,  and 
especially  in  the  classical  or  book  language,  it  implies  nothing  of 
the  sort.  A  shopkeeper  may  be  able  to  write  the  numbers  and 
keep  accounts  without  being  able  to  write  anything  else ;  and  a 
lad  who  has  attended  school  for  several  years  will  pronounce  the 
characters  of  an  ordinary  book  with  faultless  precision,  yet  not 
comprehend  the  meaning  of  a  single  sentence.  Of  those  who  can 
read  understandingly  (and  nothing  else  ought  to  be  called  read- 
ing), the  proportion  is  greater  in  towns  than  in  rural  districts. 
But  striking  an  average,  it  does  not,  according  to  my  observa- 
tion, exceed  one  in  twenty  for  the  male  sex  and  one  in  ten  thou- 
sand for  the  female — rather  a  humiliating  exhibit  for  a  country 
which  has  maintained  for  centuries  such  a  magnificent  institution 
as  the  Hanlin  Academy. 


SYSTEM    OF    EXAMINATIONS.  75 

With  all  due  allowance  for  the  want  of  statistical  accuracy 
where  no  statistics  are  obtainable,  compare  this  with  the  educa- 
tional statistics  of  the  United  States  as  given  in  the  last  census 
(that  of  1870),  Taking  the  country  as  a  whole,  the  ratio  of  illit- 
eracy among  persons  over  ten  years  of  age  is  1  in  6 ;  taking  the 
Northern  States  alone,  the  ratio  is  57  to  1000,  or  about  1  in  18.* 

VI.    SYSTEM    OF    EXAMINATIONS.f 

To  some  it  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  that  popular  education 
is  left  to  take  care  of  itself  in  a  country  where  letters  are  held 
sacred  and  their  inventor  enrolled  among  the  gods;  to  others  it 
may  appear  equally  strange  that  mental  cultivation  is  so  exten- 
sively diffused,  considering  the  cumbrous  vehicle  employed  for 
the  transmission  of  thought  and  the  enormous  difficulty  of  get- 
ting command  of  it.  Both  phenomena  find  their  solution  in  the 
fact  that  the  government  does  not  value  education  for  its  own 
sake,  but  regards  it  as  means  to  an  end.  The  great  end  is  the  re- 
pose of  the  State ;  the  instruments  for  securing  it  are  able  offi- 
cers, and  education  is  the  means  for  preparing  them  for  the  dis- 
charge of  their  duties.  This  done,  an  adequate  supply  of  disci- 
plined agents  once  secured,  the  education  of  the  people  ceases  to 
be  an  object.  The  repose  of  the  State*  one  of  the  ancient  philos- 
ophers tells  us,  might  be  assured  by  a  process  the  opposite  of 
popular  education.  "  Fill  the  people's  bellies  and  empty  their 
minds ;  cause  that  they  neither  know  nor  desire  anything,  and 
you  have  the  secret  of  a  tranquil  government."  Such  is  the  ad- 
vice of  Laukeun,  which  I  am  inclined  to  take  as  an  utterance  of 
Socratic  irony  rather  than  Machiavelian  malice.  So  far  from  sub- 
scribing to  this  sentinjent  in  its  literal  import,  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment holds  its  officers  responsible  for  the  instruction  of  its 

*  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1871. 

t  In  this  section  certain  words  and  phrases  may  remind  the  reader  of  the 
preceding  article,  but  it  is  far  from  being  a  mere  repetition. 


76  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

subjects  in  all  matters  of  duty ;  and  in  Chinese  society  the  idea 
of  instruction  as  the  one  thing  needful  has  so  wrought  itself  into 
the  forms  of  speech  as  to  become  a  wearisome  cant.  The  red 
card  that  invites  you  to  an  entertainment  solicits  "  instruction." 
When  a  friend  meets  you  he  apologizes  for  having  so  long  ab- 
sented himself  from  your  "instructions;"  and  in  familiar  con- 
versation, simple  statements  and  opinions  are  often  received  as 
"  precious  instruction  "  by  those  who  do  not  by  any  means  ac- 
cept them.  It  is  more  to  the  point  to  add  that  one  of  the  clas- 
sical books  denounces  it  as  the  greatest  of  parental  faults  to 
bring  up  a  child  without  instruction.  This  relates  to  the  moral 
rather  than  to  the  intellectual  side  of  education.  The  Chinese 
government  does,  nevertheless,  encourage  purely  intellectual  cult- 
ure ;  and  it  does  so  in  a  most  decided  and  effectual  manner — viz., 
by  testing  attainments  and  rewarding  exertion.  In  the  magnifi- 
cence of  the  scale  on  which  it  does  this,  it  is  unapproached  by 
any  other  nation  of  the  earth. 

Lord  Mahon,  in  his  History  of  England,  speaking  of  the  pat- 
ronage extended  to  learning  in  the  period  preceding  Walpole, 
observes  that  "  though  the  sovereign  was  never  an  Augustus,  the 
minister  was  always  a  Maecenas.  Newton  became  Master  of  the 
Mint ;  Locke  was  Commissioner  of  Appeals ;  Steele  was  Commis- 
sioner of  Stamps ;  Stepney,  Prior,  and  Gray  were  employed  in 
lucrative  and  important  embassies;  Addison  was  Secretary  of 
State ;  Tickell,  Secretary  in  Ireland.  Several  rich  sinecures  were 
bestowed  on  Congreve  and  Rowe,  on  Hughes  and  Ambrose  Phil- 
ips." And  he  goes  on  to  show  how  the  illiberality  of  succeed- 
ing reigns  was  atoned  for  by  popular  favor,  the  diffusion  of 
knowledge  enabling  the  people  to  become  the  patron  of  genius 
and  learning. 

The  Chinese  practise  none  of  these  three  methods.  The  Em- 
peror, less  arbitrary  than  monarchs  of  the  West,  does  not  feel  at 
liberty  to  reward  an  author  by  official  appointments,  and  his 
minister  has  no  power  to  do  so.  The  inefficiency  of  popular  pat- 


SYSTEM    OF    EXAMINATIONS.  77 

ronage  is  less  to  their  credit,  authors  reaping  oftentimes  much 
honor  and  little  emolument  from  their  works.  But  it  is  some- 
thing to  be  able  to  add  that  all  three  are  merged  in  a  regulated 
State  patronage,  according  to  which  the  reward  of  literary  merit 
is  a  law  of  the  Empire  and  a  right  of  the  people.  This  brings  us 
to  speak  of  the  examination  system  ;  not,  indeed,  a  fresh  theme, 
but  one  which  is  not  yet  exhausted.  Though  not  new  to  the  Oc- 
cidental public,  these  examinations  are  not  properly  understood, 
for  the  opinion  has  been  gaining  ground  that  their  value  has 
been  overrated,  and  that  they  are  to  be  held  responsible  for  all 
the  shortcomings  of  Chinese  intellectual  culture.  The  truth  is 
just  the  reverse.  These  shortcomings  (I  have  not  attempted  to 
disguise  them)  are  referable  to  other  causes,  while  for  something 
like  two  thousand  years  this  system  of  literary  competition  has 
operated  as  a  stimulating  and  conservative  agency,  to  which  are 
due  not  only  the  merits  of  the  national  education,  such  as  it  is, 
but  its  very  existence.  Nor  has  its  political  influence  been  less 
deep  and  beneficial.  Essentially  political  in  its  aims,  it  has  ef- 
fected far  more  in  the  way  of  political  good  than  its  authors 
ever  ventured  to  anticipate.  By  enlarging  the  liberties  of  the 
people  it  contributes  to  the  strength  of  the  State ;  and  by  afford- 
ing occupation  to  the  restless  and  aspiring  it  tends  to  secure  the 
tranquillity  of  the  public.  The  safety-valve  of  society,  it  pro- 
vides a  vent  for  that  ambition  and  energy  which  would  other- 
wise burst  forth  in  civil  strife  and  bloody  revolution. 

These  examinations  are  of  two  kinds,  which  we  shall  distin- 
guish as  pre-official  and  post-official ;  the  former  is  the  offspring 
of  the  latter,  which  it  has  outgrown  and  overshadowed.  Their 
genesis  is  not  difficult  to  trace ;  and,  paradoxical  as  it  may  ap- 
pear, these  literary  examinations  date  back  to  a  period  anterior 
to  the  rise  of  literature.  The  principles  that  lie  at  their  founda- 
tion are  found  clearly  expressed  among  the  received  maxims  of 
government  under  the  earliest  of  the  historic  dynasties.  It  was 
not,  however,  until  the  dynasties  of  the  Tang  and  Sung  (618- 


78  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

1120)  that  these  examinations  assumed  substantially  the  form  in 
which  we  now  find  them.  Coming  down  from  the  past,  with  the 
accretions  of  many  centuries,  they  have  expanded  into  a  system 
whose  machinery  is  as  complex  as  its  proportions  are  enormous. 
Its  ramifications  extend  to  every  district  of  the  Empire;  and  it 
commands  the  services  of  district  magistrates,  prefects,  and  other 
civil  functionaries  up  to  governors  and  viceroys.  These  are  all 
auxiliary  to  the  regular  officers  of  the  literary  corporation. 

In  each  district  there  are  two  resident  examiners  with  the  title 
of  professor,  whose  duty  it  is  to  keep  a  register  of  all  competing 
students,  and  to  exercise  them  from  time  to  time  in  order  to 
stimulate  their  efforts  and  keep  them  in  preparation  for  the 
higher  examinations  in  which  degrees  are  conferred.  In  each 
province  there  is  one  chancellor  or  superintendent  of  instruction, 
who  holds  office  for  three  years,  and  is  required  to  visit  every 
district  and  hold  the  customary  examinations  within  that  time, 
conferring  the  first  degree  on  a  certain  percentage  of  the  candi- 
dates. There  are,  moreover,  two  special  examiners  for  each 
province,  generally  members  of  the  Hanlin,  deputed  from  the 
capital  to  conduct  the  great  triennial  examination  and  confer  the 
second  degree. 

The  regular  degrees  are  three : 

First,  Siu-tsai,  or  "  Budding  talent." 

Second,  Chu-jin,  or  "  Deserving  of  promotion." 

Third,  Tsin-shi,  or  "  Fit  for  office." 

To  which  may  be  added  as  a  fourth  degree  the  Hanlin,  or 
member  of  the  "  Forest  of  Pencils."  The  first  of  these  is  some- 
times compared  to  the  degree  of  B.A.,  conferred  by  colleges  and 
universities ;  the  second  to  M.A. ;  and  the  third  to  D.C.L.  or 
LL.D.  The  last  is  accurately  described  by  membership  in  the 
Imperial  Academy ;  always  bearing  in  mind  how  much  a  Chi- 
nese academy  must  differ  from  a  similar  institution  in  the  West. 
But  so  faint  is  the  analogy  which  the  other  degrees  bear  to  the 
literary  degrees  of  Western  lands  that  the  interchange  of  terms 


SYSTEM    OF    EXAMINATIONS.  79 

is  sure  to  lead  to  misconceptions.  Chinese  degrees  represent  tal- 
ent, not  knowledge ;  they  are  conferred  by  the  State,  without  the 
intervention  of  school  or  college ;  they  carry  with  them  the  priv- 
ileges of  official  rank ;  and  they  are  bestowed  on  no  more  than 
a  very  small  percentage  of  those  who  engage  in  competition. 
With  us,  on  the  contrary,  they  give  no  official  standing;  they 
attest,  where  they  mean  anything,  acquirements  rather  than  abil- 
ity ;  and  the  number  of  those  who  are  "  plucked "  is  usually 
small  in  comparison  with  those  who  are  allowed  to  "  pass."  But, 
after  all,  the  new-fledged  bachelor  of  an  Occidental  college,  his 
head  crammed  with  the  outlines  of  universal  knowledge,  answers 
quite  as  nearly  to  the  sprightly  siu-tsai, 

"  Whose  soul  proud  science  never  taught  to  stray 
Far  as  the  solar  walk  or  Milky  Way," 

as  does  a  Western  general  to  the  chief  of  an  undisciplined  horde 
of  so-called  soldiers. 

The  following  report  of  Panszelien,  Chancellor  of  the  Province 
of  Shantung,  though  somewhat  vague,  will  give  us  an  idea  of  the 
official  duties  of  the  chief  examiner  and  the  spirit  in  which  he 
professes  to  discharge  them  : 

"  Your  Majesty's  servant,"  says  the  chancellor,  "  has  guarded 
the  seal  of  office  with  the  utmost  vigilance.  In  every  instance 
where  frauds  were  detected  he  has  handed  the  offender  over  to 
the  proper  authorities  for  punishment.  In  re-examining  the  suc- 
cessful, whenever  their  handwriting  disagreed  with  that  of  their 
previous  performances,  he  has  at  once  expelled  them  from  the 
hall,  without  granting  a  particle  of  indulgence.  He  everywhere 
exhorted  the  students  to  aim  at  the  cultivation  of  a  high  moral 
character.  In  judging  of  the  merit  of  compositions,  he  followed 
reason  and  the  established  rules.  At  the  close  of  each  examina- 
tion he  addressed  the  students  face  to  face,  exhorting  them  not 
to  walk  in  ways  of  vanity,  nor  to  concern  themselves  with  things 
foreign  to  their  vocation,  but  to  uphold  the  credit  of  scholarship 


80  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

and  to  seek  to  maintain  or  retrieve  the  literary  reputation  of 
their  several  districts.  Besides  these  occupations,  your  servant, 
in  passing  from  place  to  place,  observed  that  the  snow  has  every- 
where exercised  a  reviving  influence ;  the  young  wheat  is  begin- 
ning to  shoot  up ;  the  people  are  perfectly  quiet  and  well  dis- 
posed ;  the  price  of  provisions  is  moderate ;  and  those  who  suf- 
fered from  the  recent  floods  are  gradually  returning  to  their 
forsaken  homes.  For  literary  culture,  Hincheu  stands  pre-emi- 
nent, while  Tsaocheu  is  equally  so  in  military  matters." 

This  is  the  whole  report,  with  the  exception  of  certain  stereo- 
typed phrases,  employed  to  open  and  conclude  such  documents, 
and  a  barren  catalogue  of  places  and  dates.  It  contains  no  sta- 
tistical facts,  no  statement  of  the  number  of  candidates,  nor  the 
proportion  passed ;  indeed,  no  information  of  any  kind,  except 
that  conveyed  in  a  chance  allusion  in  the  closing  sentence. 

From  this  we  learn  that  the  chancellor  is  held  responsible  for 
examinations  in  the  military  art;  and  it  might  be  inferred  that 
he  reviews  the  troops  and  gauges  the  attainments  of  the  cadets 
in  military  history,  engineering,  tactics,  etc. ;  but  nothing  of  the 
kind  :  he  sees  them  draw  the  bow,  hurl  the  discus,  and  go  through 
various  manoeuvres  with  spear  and  shield,  which  have  no  longer 
a  place  in  civilized  warfare. 

The  first  degree  only  is  conferred  by  the  provincial  chancellor, 
and  the  happy  recipients,  fifteen  or  twenty  in  each  department, 
or  one  per  cent,  of  the  candidates,  are  decorated  with  the  insignia 
of  rank  and  admitted  to  the  ground-floor  of  the  nine-storied  pa- 
goda. The  trial  for  the  second  degree  is  held  in  the  capital  of 
each  province,  by  special  commissioners,  once  in  three  years.  It 
consists  of  three  sessions  of  three  days  each,  making  nine  days 
of  almost  continuous  exertion — a  strain  to  the  mental  and  phys- 
ical powers  to  which  the  infirm  and  aged  frequently  succumb. 

In  addition  to  composition  in  prose  and  verse,  the  candidate 
is  required  to  show  his  acquaintance  with  history  (the  history  of 
China),  philosophy,  criticism,  and  various  branches  of  archaeology. 


SYSTEM    OF    EXAMINATIONS.  81 

Again  one  per  cent,  are  decorated ;  but  it  is  not  until  the  more 
fortunate  among  them  succeed  in  passing  the  metropolitan  trien- 
nial that  the  meed  of  civil  office  is  certainly  bestowed.  They 
are  not,  however,  assigned  to  their  respective  offices  until  they 
have  gone  through  two  special  examinations  within  the  palace 
and  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor.  On  this  occasion  the  high- 
est on  the  list  is  honored  with  the  title  of  chuang-yuen,  or  "  lau- 
reate " — a  distinction  so  great  that  in  the  last  reign  it  was  not 
thought  unbefitting  the  daughter  of  a  ckuang-yuen  to  be-  raised 
to  the  position  of  consort  of  the  Son  of  Heaven. 

A  score  of  the  best  are  admitted  to  membership  in  the  Acad- 
emy, two  or  three  score  are  attached  to  it  as  pupils  or  probation- 
ers, and  the  rest  drafted  off  to  official  posts  in  the  capital  or  in 
the  provinces,  the  humblest  of  which  is  supposed  to  compensate 
the  occupant  for  a  life  of  penury  and  toil. 

In  conclusion,  this  noble  institution — the  civil-service  compet- 
itive system — appears  destined  to  play  a  conspicuous  part  in  car- 
rying forward  an  intellectual  movement  the  incipient  stages  of 
which  are  already  visible.  It  has  cherished  the  national  educa- 
tion, such  as  it  "is ;  and  if  it  has  compelled  the  mind  of  China 
for  ages  past  to  grind  in  the  mill  of  barren  imitation,  that  is  not 
the  fault  of  the  system,  but  its  abuse. 

When  the  growing  influence  of  Western  science  animates  it 
with  a  new  spirit,  as  it  must  do  ere  long,  we  shall  see  a  million 
or  more  of  patient  students  applying  themselves  to  scientific 
studies  with  all  the  ardor  that  now  characterizes  their  literary 
competition. 

Six  years  ago  the  Viceroy  of  Fuhkien,  now  a  member  of  the 
Imperial  Cabinet,  proposed  the  institution  of  a  competition  in 
mathematics.  The  suggestion  was  not  adopted ;  but  a  few  days 
ago  it  was  brought  up  in  a  new  form,  with  the  addition  of  the 
physical  sciences,  by  Li-Hung-Chang,  the  famous  governor  of 
the  metropolitan  province.  When  adopted,  as  it  must  be,  it  will 
place  the  entire  examination  system  on  a  new  basis,  and  inaugu- 

4* 


82  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

rate  an  intellectual  revolution  whose  extent  and  results  it  would 
be  difficult  to  predict. 

In  remodelling  her  national  education,  Japan  has  begun  with 
her  schools,  and,  however  reluctant,  China  will  be  compelled  to 
do  the  same.  Thus  far  her  efforts  in  that  direction  have  been 
few  and  feeble,  all  that  she  has  to  show  being  a  couple  of  schools 
at  Canton  and  Shanghai,  with  forty  students  each  ;  three  or  four 
schools  in  connection  with  the  arsenal  at  Fuhchow,  with  an  ag- 
gregate of  three  hundred ;  and  in  the  capital  an  Imperial  College 
for  Western  Science,  with  an  attendance  of  about  a  hundred.* 

The  proposed  modifications  in  the  civil-service  examination 
system  will  not  only  invest  each  of  these  schools  with  a  new  im- 
portance, and  give  a  higher  value  to  every  educated  youth ;  it 
will  have  the  effect  of  creating  for  itself  a  system  of  schools  and 
colleges  on  the  basis  of  an  existing  organization. 

In  every  department  and  district  there  is  a  government  school 
with  two  or  more  professors  attached.  The  professors  give  no 
instruction,  and  the  students  only  present  themselves  at  stated 
times  for  examination.  With  the  introduction  of  science  these 
professors  will  become  teachers,  and  each  of  these  now  deserted 
schools  a  centre  of  illumination. 

*  The  number  of  students  in  this  institution  is  limited  by  the  fact  that 
they  are  on  government  pay  and  training  for  government  service.  The 
faculty  of  instruction  consists  of  eleven  professors,  seven  foreign  and  four 
Chinese. 

A  printing-office  with  six  presses  has  lately  been  erected  in  connection 
with  the  college,  with  a  view  to  the  printing  and  circulation  of  scientific 
works.  These  are  expected  to  be  supplied  in  part  by  the  professors  and 
students,  who  are  at  present  largely  occupied  with  the  translation  of  useful 
books. 


INFLUENCE    OF   EDUCATION    ON   NATIONAL    CHARACTER.       83 


APPENDIX.* 

"HARTFORD,  CONN.,  March  17, 1876. 

"  DEAR  SIR, — Enclosed  herewith  I  beg  to  hand  you  a  brief  report  of  our 
Chinese  students  in  this  country.  I  should  have  written  it  much  earlier 
had  not  my  time  been  well  taken  up  .by  other  duties  connected  with  the 
mission.  Should  you  have  any  inquires  to  make  about  our  students,  do  not 
hesitate  to  put  them. 

"  I  remain,  your  obedient  servant, 

"YCNG  WlNG.f 

"  Hon.  J.  EATON, 
"  Commissioner  of  Education,  Washington,  D.  C" 


"  Since  the  statement  of  January  7, 1873,  respecting  the  arrival  in  Septem- 
ber, 1872,  of  the  first  detachment  of  Chinese  government  students  in  this 
country  was  published,  we  have  had  three  more  detachments  of  thirty  stu- 
dents each,  who  came  in  succession  in  the  years  1873,'74,'75 ;  thus  com- 
pleting the  whole  number  of  one  hundred  and  twenty,  as  originally  deter- 
mined upon  by  the  Chinese  government.  These  students  are  located  in 
towns  in  Connecticut  and  Massachusetts  all  along  the  Connecticut  valley. 

"  The  first  detachment  has  been  here  about  three  years  and  a  half,  up  to 
the  1st  of  March,  1876;  the  second  detachment  has  been  two  years  and  a 
half ;  the  third,  one  year  and  a  half ;  and  the  fourth,  only  four  months. 

"  Most  of  the  first  detachment  have  joined  classes  in  public  schools  and 
academies,  and  are  now  studying  algebra,  Greek,  and  Latin. 

"It  is  expected  that  about  three  years  from  now  (March,  1876)  they  will 
be  able  to  enter  colleges  and  scientific  schools.  Those  of  the  second  and 
other  detachments  are  still  prosecuting  their  English  studies,  such  as  arith- 
metic, geography,  grammar,  and  history.  A  few  of  them  have  exhibited  de- 
cided taste  for  drawing  and  sketching.  Specimens  of  these,  together  with 
manuscripts  of  written  examinations  in  all  their  studies,  were  sent  to  Hon. 
B.  G.  Northrop  for  the  Centennial  Exhibition.  These  papers  may  be  taken 

*  These  documents  appended  by  the  Commissioner  of  Education  to  the 
original  publication  are  retained  on  account  of  their  intrinsic  interest. 

f  Mr.  Yung  Wing  is  an  alumnus  of  Yale  College,  and  has  received  from 
his  Alma  Mater  the  honorary  degree  of  LL.D. 


84  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETQ. 

as  fair  evidences  of  their  progress  iii  the  different  studies  since  they  have 
been  here. 

"  Our  students,  ever  since  their  arrival,  have  been  favored  with  good  health 
in  a  remarkable  degree.  With  the  exception  of  one  case  of  death  from 
scarlet  fever  in  18*75,  they  have,  on  the  whole,  enjoyed  excellent  health.  Be- 
sides the  one  who  died  a  year  ago,  we  have  dismissed  four,  thus  leaving  us 
only  one  hundred  and  fifteen  students. 

"  There  have  been  some  material  changes  in  the  mission  during  the  past 
year.  Mr.  Chin  Lan  Pin,  one  of  the  commissioners,  who  returned  to  China 
more  than  a  year  ago,  has  been  succeeded  by  Ngen  Ngoh  Liang;  Mr.  Kwong 
Ki  Chin  has  taken  the  place  of  Mr.  Chan  Laisun,  translator ;  and  Lin  Yun 
Fong,  a  young  tutor  in  Chinese,  has  been  added  to  the  staff  of  teachers." 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  85 


AN  OLD  UNIVERSITY  IN  CHINA.* 

IT  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  Peking  contains  an 
ancient  university  ;  for,  though  certain  buildings  connected  with 
it  have  been  frequently  described,  the  institution  itself  has  been 
but  little  noticed.  It  gives,  indeed,  so  few  signs  of  life  that  it 
is  not  surprising  it  should  be  overlooked.  And  yet  few  of  the 
institutions  of  this  hoary  Empire  are  invested  with  a  deeper  in- 
terest, as  venerable  relics  of  the  past,  and,  at  the  same  time,  as 
mournful  illustrations  of  the  degenerate  present. 

If  a  local  situation  be  deemed  an  essential  element  of  identity, 
this  old  university  must  yield  the  palm  of  age  to  many  in  Eu- 
rope, for  in  its  present  site  it  dates,  at  most,  only  from  the  Yuen, 
or  Mongol,  dynasty,  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
But  as  an  imperial  institution,  having  a  fixed  organization  and 
definite  objects,  it  carries  its  history,  or  at  least  its  pedigree,  back 
to  a  period  far  anterior  to  the  founding  of  the  Great  Wall. 

Among  the  Regulations  of  the  House  of  Chow,  which  flour- 
ished a  thousand  years  before  the  Christian  era,  we  meet  with  it 
already  in  full-blown  vigor,  and  under  the  identical  name  which 
it  now  bears,  that  of  Kwotszekien,  or  "School  for  the  Sons  of  the 
Empire."  It  was  in  its  glory  before  the  light  of  science  dawned 
on  Greece,  and  when  Pythagoras  and  Plato  were  pumping  their 
secrets  from  the  priests  of  Heliopolis.  And  it  still  exists,  but  it 
is  only  an  embodiment  of  "  life  in  death :"  its  halls  are  tombs, 
and  its  officers  living  mummies. 

In  the  13th  Book  of  the  Chowle  (see  Rites  de  Tcheou,  traduc- 

*  First  published  in  1871. 


86  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

tion  par  Edouard  Bioi),  we  find  the  functions  of  the  heads  of 
the  Kwotszekien  laid  down  with  a  good  deal  of  minuteness. 

The  presidents  were  to  admonish  the  Emperor  of  that  which 
is  good  and  just,  and  to  instruct  the  Sons  of  the  State  in  the 
"three  constant  virtues"  and  the  "three  practical  duties" — in 
other  words,  to  give  a  course  of  lectures  on  moral  philosophy. 
The  vice-presidents  were  to  reprove  the  Emperor  for  his  faults 
(i.  e.  to  perform  the  duty  of  official  censors)  and  to  discipline  the 
Sons  of  the  State  in  sciences  and  arts — viz.,  in  arithmetic,  writ- 
ing, music,  archery,  horsemanship,  and  ritual  ceremonies.  The 
titles  and  offices  of  the  subordinate  instructors  are  not  given  in 
detail,  but  we  are  able  to  infer  them  with  a  good  degree  of  cer- 
tainty from  what  we  know  of  the  organization  as  it  now  exists. 

The  old  curriculum  is  religiously  adhered  to,  but  greater  lati- 
tude is  given,  as  we  shall  have  occasion  to  observe,  to  the  term 
"  Sons  of  the  State."  In  the  days  of  Chow,  this  meant  the  heir- 
apparent,  princes  of  the  blood,  and  children  of  the  nobility.  Un- 
der the  Tatsing  dynasty  it  signifies  men  of  defective  scholarship 
throughout  the  provinces,  who  purchase  literary  degrees,  and 
more  specifically  certain  indigent  students  of  Peking,  who  are 
aided  by  the  imperial  bounty. 

The  Kwotszekien  is  located  in  the  northeastern  angle  of  the 
Tartar  city,  with  a  temple  of  Confucius  attached,  which  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  Empire.  The  main  edifice  (that  of  the  tem- 
ple) consists  of  a  single  story  of  imposing  height,  with  a  porce- 
lain roof  of  tent-like  curvature.  It  shelters  no  object  of  venera- 
tion beyond  simple  tablets  of  wood  inscribed  with  the  name  of 
the  sage  and  those  of  his  most  illustrious  disciples.  It  contains 
no  seats,  as  all  comers  are  expected  to  stand  or  kneel  in  pres- 
ence of  the  Great  Teacher.  Neither  does  it  boast  anything  in 
the  way  of  artistic  decoration,  nor  exhibit  any  trace  of  that 
neatness  and  taste  which  we  look  for  in  a  sacred  place.  Per- 
haps its  vast  area  is  designedly  left  to  dust  and  emptiness,  in 
order  that  nothing  may  intervene  to  disturb  the  mind  in  the 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  87 

contemplation  of  a  great  name  which  receives  the  homage  of  a 
nation. 

Gilded  tablets,  erected  by  various  emperors — the  only  orna- 
mental objects  that  meet  the  eye — record  the  praises  of  Confu- 
cius ;  one  pronounces  him  the  "  culmination  of  the  sages,"  an- 
other describes  him  as  forming  a  "  trinity  with  Heaven  and 
Earth,"  and  a  third  declares  that  "  his  holy  soul  was  sent  down 
from  heaven."  A  grove  of  cedars,  the  chosen  emblem  of  a  fame 
that  never  fades,  occupies  a  space  in  front  of  the  temple,  and 
some  of  the  trees  are  huge  with  the  growth  of  centuries. 

In  an  adjacent  block  or  square  stands  a  pavilion  known  as  the 
"Imperial  Lecture-room,"  because  it  is  incumbent  on  each  oc- 
cupant of  the  Dragon  throne  to  go  there  at  least  once  in  his 
lifetime  to  hear  a  discourse  on  the  nature  and  responsibilities  of 
his  office — thus  conforming  to  the  letter  of  the  Chowle,  which 
makes  it  the  duty  of  the  officers  of  the  university  to  administer 
reproof  and  exhortation  to  their  sovereign,*  and  doing  homage 
to  the  university  by  going  in  person  to  receive  its  instruction. 

A  canal  spanned  by  marble  bridges  encircles  the  pavilion, 
and  arches  of  glittering  porcelain,  in  excellent  repair,  adorn  the 
grounds.  But  neither  these  nor  the  pavilion  itself  constitutes 
the  chief  attraction  of  the  place. 

Under  a  long  corridor  which  encloses  the  entire  space  may 
be  seen  as  many  as  one  hundred  and  eighty-two  columns  of 
massive  granite,  each  inscribed  with  a  portion  of  the  canonical 
books.  These  are  the  "Stone  Classics" — the  entire  "Thirteen," 
which  form  the  staple  of  a  Chinese  education,  being  here  en- 
shrined in  a  material  supposed  to  be  imperishable.  Among  all 
the  universities  in  the  world,  the  Kwotszekien  is  unique  in  the 
possession  of  such  a  library. 

This  is  not,  indeed,  the  only  stone  library  extant — another  of 

*  They  still  discharge  these  functions  in  writing,  their  memorials  fre- 
quently appearing  in  the  pages  of  the  Peking  Gazette. 


88  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

equal  extent  being  found  at  Singanfu,  the  ancient  capital  of  the 
Tangs.  But  that,  too,  was  the  property  of  the  Kwotszekieu  ten 
centuries  ago,  when  Singan  was  the  seat  of  empire.  The 
"School  for  the  Sons  of  the  Empire"  must  needs  follow  the 
migrations  of  the  court ;  and  that  library,  costly  as  it  was,  being 
too  heavy  for  transportation,  it  was  thought  best  to  supply  its 
place  by  the  new  edition  which  we  have  been  describing. 

The  use  of  this  heavy  literature  is  a  matter  for  speculation,  a 
question  almost  as  difficult  of  solution  as  the  design  of  the  pyra- 
mids. Was  it  intended  to  supply  the  world  with  a  standard 
text — a  safe  channel  through  which  the  streams  of  wisdom 
might  be  transmitted  pure  and  undefiled  ?  Or  were  their  sacred 
books  engraved  on  stone  to  secure  them  from  any  modern  mad- 
man, who  might  take  it  into  his  head  to  emulate  the  Tyrant  of 
Tsin,  the  burner  of  the  books  and  builder  of  the  Great  Wall  ? 
If  the  former  was  the  object,  it  was  useless,  as  paper  editions, 
well  executed  and  carefully  preserved,  would  have  answered  the 
purpose  equally  well.  If  the  latter,  it  was  absurd,  as  granite, 
though  fire-proof,  is  not  indestructible ;  and  long  before  these 
columns  were  erected,  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  had 
forever  placed  the  depositories  of  wisdom  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  barbarian's  torch.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  Chinese  to  ask 
for  no  better  reason  than  ancient  custom.  Their  forefathers  en- 
graved these  classics  on  stone,  and  they  must  do  the  same.  But 
whatever  may  have  been  the  original  design,  the  true  light  in 
which  to  regard  these  curious  books  is  that  of  an  impressive 
tribute  to  the  sources  of  their  civilization. 

I  may  mention  here  that  the  Rev.  Dr.  Williamson,  on  a  visit 
to  Singanfu,  saw  many  persons  engaged  in  taking  "  rubbings  " 
from  the  stone  classics  of  that  city ;  and  he  informs  us  that 
complete  copies  were  sold  at  a  very  high  rate.  The  popularity 
of  the  Singan  tablets  is  accounted  for  by  the  flavor  of  antiquity 
which  they  possess,  and  especially  by  the  style  of  the  engraving, 
which  is  much  admired — or,  more  properly,  the  calligraphy  which 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  89 

it  reproduces.  Those  of  Peking  are  not  at  all  patronized  by  the 
printers,  and  yet  if  textual  accuracy  were  the  object,  they  ought, 
as  a  later  edition,  to  be  more  highly  prized  than  the  others.  A 
native  cicerone  whom  I  once  questioned  as  to  the  object  of  these 
stones  replied,  with  a  naivete  quite  refreshing,  that  they  were 
"set  up  for  the  amusement  of  visitors" — an  answer  which  I 
should  have  set  to  the  credit  of  his  ready  wit,  if  he  had  not  pro- 
ceeded to  inform  me  that  neither  students  nor  editors  ever  came 
to  consult  the  text,  and  that  "  rubbings  "  are  never  taken. 

In  front  of  the  temple  stands  a  forest  of  columns  of  scarcely 
inferior  interest.  They  are  three  hundred  and  twenty  in  num- 
ber, and  contain  the  university  roll  of  honor,  a  complete  list  of 
all  who  since  the  founding  of  the  institution  have  attained  to 
the  dignity  of  the  doctorate.  Allow  to  each  an  average  of  two 
hundred  names,  and  we  have  an  army  of  doctors  sixty  thousand 
strong !  (By  the  doctorate  I  mean  the  third  or  highest  degree.) 
All  these  received  their  investiture  at  the  Kwotszekien,  and, 
throwing  themselves  at  the  feet  of  its  president,  enrolled  them- 
selves among  the  "  Sons  of  the  Empire."  They  were  not,  how- 
ever— at  least  the  most  of  them  were  not — in  any  proper  sense 
alumni  of  the  Kwotszekien,  having  pursued  their  studies  in 
private,  and  won  their  honors  by  public  competition  in  the  halls 
of  the  Civil-service  Examining  Board. 

This  granite  register  goes  back  for  nearly  six  hundred  years ; 
but  while  intended  to  stimulate  ambition  and  gratify  pride,  it 
reads  to  the  new  graduate  a  lesson  of  humility — showing  him 
how  remorselessly  time  consigns  all  human  honors  to  oblivion. 
The  columns  are  quite  exposed,  and  those  that  are  more  than 
a  century  old  are  so  defaced  by  the  weather  as  to  be  no  longer 
legible. 

If  in  the  matter  of  conferring  degrees  the  Kwotszekien  "  beats 
the  world,"  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  enjoys  the  monopoly 
of  the  Empire — so  far  as  the  doctorate  is  concerned. 

Besides  these  departments,  intended  mainly  to  commemorate 


90  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

the  past,  there  is  an  immense  area  occupied  by  lecture-rooms, 
examination-halls,  and  lodging-apartments.  But  the  visitor  is 
liable  to  imagine  that  these,  too,  are  consecrated  to  a  monu- 
mental use — so  rarely  is  a  student  or  a  professor  to  be  seen 
among  them.  Ordinarily  they  are  as  desolate  as  the  halls  of 
Baalbec  or  Palmyra.  In  fact,  this  great  school  for  the  "  Sons  of 
the  Empire "  has  long  ceased  to  be  a  seat  of  instruction,  and 
degenerated  into  a  mere  appendage  of  the  civil-service  competi- 
tive examinations,  on  which  it  hangs  as  a  dead  weight,  corrupt- 
ing and  debasing  instead  of  advancing  the  standard  of  national 
education. 

By  an  eld  law,  made  for  the  purpose  of  enhancing  the  im- 
portance of  this  institution,  the  possession  of  a  scholarship  car- 
ries with  it  the  privilege  of  wearing  decorations  which  belong  to 
the  first  degree,  and  of  entering  the  lists  to  compete  for  the  sec- 
ond. This  naturally  caused  such  scholarships  to  be  eagerly 
sought  for,  and  eventually  had  the  effect  of  bringing  them  into 
market  as  available  stock  on  which  to  raise  funds  for  govern- 
ment use.  A  price  was  placed  on  them,  and  like  the  papal  in- 
dulgences, they  were  vended  throughout  the  Empire. 

Never  so  high  as  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  aspiring  poverty, 
their  price  has  now  descended  to  such  a  figure  as  to  convert 
these  honors  into  objects  of  contempt.  In  Peking  it  is  twenty- 
three  taels  (about  thirty  dollars),  but  in  the  provinces  they  can 
be  had  for  half  that  sum.  Not  long  ago  one  of  the  censors  ex- 
postulated with  his  Majesty  on  the  subject  of  these  sales.  He 
expressed  in  strong  language  his  disgust  at  the  idea  of  clodhop- 
pers and  muleteers  appearing  with  the  insignia  of  literary  rank, 
and  denounced  in  no  measured  terms  the  cheap  sale  of  ranks 
and  offices  generally.  Still — and  the  fact  is  not  a  little  curious 
— it  was  not  the  principle  of  selling  which  he  condemned,  but 
that  reckless  degradation  of  prices  which  had  the  effect  of  spoil- 
ing the  market. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  to  take  up  the  lamentation  of  this  pa- 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  91 

triotic  censor,  or  to  show  how  the  opening  of  title  and  office 
brokeries  lowers  the  credit  and  saps  the  influence  of  the  govern- 
ment. And  yet  this  entire  traffic  has  a  close  relation  to  the 
subject  in  hand ;  for,  whatever  rank  or  title  may  be  the  object 
of  purchase,  a  university  scholarship  must  of  necessity  be  pur- 
chased along  with  it,  as  the  root  on  which  it  is  grafted.  Accord- 
ingly the  flood-gates  of  this  fountain  of  honors  are  kept  wide 
open,  and  a  very  deluge  of  diplomas  issues  from  them.  A  year 
or  two  ago  a  hundred  thousand  were  sent  into  the  provinces  at 
one  time ! 

The  scholars  of  this  old  institution  accordingly  outnumber 
those  of  Oxford  or  Paris  in  their  palmiest  days.  But  there  are 
thousands  of  her  adopted  children  who  have  never  seen  the 
walls  of  Peking,  and  thousands  more  within  the  precincts  of  the 
capital  who  have  never  entered  her  gates. 

Those  who  are  too  impatient  to  wait  the  slow  results  of  com- 
petition in  their  native  districts  are  accustomed  to  seek  at  the 
university  the  requisite  qualifications  for  competing  for  the 
higher  degrees.  These  qualifications  are  not  difficult  of  attain- 
ment— the  payment  of  a  trifling  fee  and  submission  to  a  formal 
examination  being  all  that  is  required. 

For  a  few  weeks  previous  to  the  great  triennial  examinations, 
the  lodging-houses  of  the  university  are  filled  with  students  who 
are  " cramming"  for  the  occasion.  At  other  times  they  present 
the  aspect  of  a  deserted  village. 

On  the  accession  of  the  Manchu  Tartars  two  centuries  ago 
(1644),  eight  large  schools  or  colleges  were  established  for  the 
benefit  of  the  eight  tribes  or  banners  into  which  the  Tartars  of 
Peking  are  divided.  They  were  projected  on  a  liberal  scale,  and 
affiliated  to  the  university,  their  special  object  being  to  promote 
among  the  rude  invaders  a  knowledge  of  Chinese  letters  and  civ- 
ilization. Each  was  provided  with  a  staff  of  five  professors,  and 
had  an  attendance  of  one  hundred  and  five  pupils,  who  were  en- 
couraged by  a  monthly  stipend  and  regarded  as  in  training  for 


92  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

the  public  service.  The  central  luminary  and  its  satellites  pre- 
sented at  that  time  a  brilliant  and  imposing  spectacle. 

At  present,  however,  the  system  is  practically  abandoned,  the 
college  buildings  have  fallen  to  ruin,  and  not  one  of  them  is 
open  for  the  instruction  of  youth.  Nothing  remains  as  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  past  but  a  sham  examination,  which  is  held  from 
time  to  time  to  enable  the  professors  and  students  to  draw  their 
pay.  Some  ten  years  ago  an  effort  was  made  to  resuscitate  these 
government  schools  by  requiring  attendance  once  in  three  days, 
but  such  an  outcry  was  raised  against  it  that  it  soon  fell  through. 
Those  who  cared  to  learn  could  learn  better  at  home,  and  those 
who  did  not  care  for  learning  would  choose  to  dispense  with 
their  pensions  rather  than  take  the  trouble  of  attending  so  fre- 
quently. So  the  students  remain  at  home,  and  the  professors 
enjoy  their  sinecures,  hav.ing  no  serious  duty  to  perform,  except- 
ing the  worship  of  Confucius.  The  presidents  of  the  university 
are  even  designated  by  a  title  which  signifies  libation-pourers, 
indicating  that  this  empty  ceremony  is  regarded  as  their  highest 
function.  Twice  a  month  (viz.,  at  the  new  and  full  moon)  all 
the  professors  are  required  to  assemble  in  official  robes,  and  per- 
form nine  prostrations  on  the  flag-stones,  at  a  respectful  distance, 
in  front  of  the  temple. 

But  even  this  duty  a  pliable  conscience  enables  them  to  allevi- 
ate by  performing  it  by  proxy,  one  member  only  of  each  college 
appearing  for  the  rest,  and  after  the  ceremony  inscribing  the 
names  of  his  colleagues  in  a  ledger  called  the  "Record  of  Dili- 
gence," in  evidence  that  they  were  all  present. 

But  negligent  and  perfunctory  as  they  are,  they  are  not  much 
to  be  blamed  ;  they  do  as  much  as  they  are  paid  for.  Two  taels 
per  month  (three  dollars),  together  with  two  suits  of  clothes  and 
two  bushels  of  rice  per  annum,  and  a  fur-jacket  once  in  three 
years — these  are  their  emoluments  as  fixed  by  law.  Scant  as 
the  money  allowance  originally  was,  it  is  still  further  reduced 
by  being  paid  in  depreciated  currency,  and  actually  amounts  to 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  93 

less  than  one  dollar  per  month.  The  requisition  for  government 
rice  is  disposed  of  at  a  similar  discount,  the  hungry  professor  be- 
ing obliged  to  sell  it  to  a  broker  instead  of  drawing  directly  from 
the  imperial  storehouses.  As  for  the  clothing,  there  is  room  to 
suspect  that  it  has  warmed  other  shoulders  before  coming  into 
his  possession. 

These  professorships,  however,  possess  a  value  independent  of 
salary.  The  empty  title  carries  with  it  a  certain  social  distinc- 
tion j  and  the  completion  of  a  three  years'  term  of  nominal  ser- 
vice renders  a  professor  eligible  to  the  post  of  district  magis- 
trate. These  places,  therefore,  do  not  go  a-begging,  though  their 
incumbents  sometimes  do. 

In  order  to  form  a  just  idea  of  the  Kwotszekien,  we  must 
study  its  constitution.  This  will  acquaint  us  with  the  design  of 
its  founders,  and  show  us  what  it  was  in  its  prime,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  dynasty,  or,  for  that  matter,  at  the  beginning 
of  any  other  dynasty  that  has  ruled  China  for  the  last  three 
thousand  years.  We  find  it  in  the  Tatsing  hweitien,  the  collected 
statutes  of  the  reigning  dynasty ;  and  it  looks  so  well  on  paper 
that  we  cannot  refrain  from  admiring  the  wisdom  and  liberality 
of  the  ancient  worthies  who  planned  it,  however  poorly  its  pres- 
ent state  answers  to  their  original  conception.  We  find  our  re- 
spect for  the  Chinese  increasing  as  we  recede  from  the  present ; 
a,nd  in  China,  among  the  dust  and  decay  of  her  antiquated  and 
effete  institutions,  one  may  be  excused  for  catching  the  common 
infection,  and  becoming  a  worshipper  of  antiquity. 

Its  officers,  according  to  this  authority,  consist  of  a  rector,  who 
is  selected  from  among  the  chief  ministers  of  the  State;  two 
presidents  and  three  vice-presidents,  who  have  the  grade  and  title 
of  tajen,  or  "  great  men,"  and,  together  with  the  rector,  constitute 
the  governing  body ;  two  poh-ske,  or  directors  of  instruction ; 
two  proctors ;  two  secretaries ;  and  one  librarian  :  these  are  gen- 
eral officers.  Then  come  the  officers  of  the  several  colleges. 

There  are  six  colleges  for  Chinese  students,  bearing  the  names 


94  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

of  the  "  Hall  for  the  Pursuit  of  Wisdom,"  the  "  Hall  of  the  Sin- 
cere  Heart,"  "Hall  of  True  Virtue,"  "Hall  of  Noble  Aspira- 
tions," "  Hall  of  Broad  Acquirements,"  and  the  "  Hall  for  the 
Guidance  of  Nature."  Each  of  these  has  two  regular  professors, 
and  I  know  not  how  many  assistants.  There  are  eight  colleges 
for  the  Manchu  Tartars,  as  above  mentioned,  each  with  five  pro- 
fessors. And,  lastly,  there  is  a  school  for  the  Russian  language, 
and  a  school  for  mathematics  and  astronomy,  each  with  one  pro- 
fessor. To  these  we  add  six  clerks  and  translators,  and  we  have 
a  total  of  seventy-one  persons,  constituting  what  we  may  call  the 
corporation  of  the  university. 

As  to  the  curriculum  of  studies,  its  literature  was  never  ex- 
pected to  go  beyond  the  thirteen  classics  engraved  on  the  stones 
which  adorn  its  halls ;  while  its  arts  and  sciences  were  all  compre- 
hended in  the  familiar  "  Six,"  which  from  the  days  of  Chow,  if 
not  from  those  of  Yaou  and  Shun,  have  formed  the  trivium  and 
quadrivium  of  the  Chinese  people. 

It  would  be  doing  injustice  to  the  ancients  to  accuse  them  of 
limiting  the  scientific  studies  of  the  Kwotszekien  by  their  narrow 
formula}.  The  truth  is,  that,  little  as  the  ancients  accomplished 
in  this  line,  their  modern  disciples  have  not  attempted  to  emu- 
late or  overtake  them.  In  the  University  of  Grand  Cairo,  it  is 
said,  no  science  that  is  more  recent  than  the  twelfth  century  is 
allowed  to  be  taught.  In  that  of  China,  the  "  School  for  the 
Sons  of  the  Empire,"  no  science  whatever  is  pretended  to  be 
taught. 

This  is  not,  however,  owing  to  any  restriction  in  the  constitu- 
tion or  charter,  as  its  terms  afford  sufficient  scope  for  expansion 
if  the  officers  of  the  university  had  possessed  the  disposition  or 
the  capacity  to  avail  themselves  of  such  liberty.  It  is  there  said, 
for  example,  "  As  to  practical  arts,  such  as  the  art  of  war,  astron- 
omy, engraving,  music,  law,  and  the  like,  let  the  professors  lead 
their  students  to  the  original  sources  and  point  out  the  defects 
and  the  merits  of  each  author." 


AN    OLD    UNIVERSITY    IN    CHINA.  95 

Is  there  any  ground  to  hope  that  this  ancient  school,  once  an 
ornament  and  a  blessing  to  the  Empire,  may  be  renovated,  re- 
modelled, and  adapted  to  the  altered  circumstances  of  the  age  ? 
The  prospect,  we  think,  is  not  encouraging.  A  traveller,  on  en- 
tering the  city  of  Peking,  is  struck  by  the  vast  extent  and  skil- 
ful masonry  of  its  sewers ;  but  he  is  not  less  astonished  at  their 
present  dilapidated  condition,  reeking  with  filth  and  breeding 
pestilence,  instead  of  ministering  to  the  health  of  the  city. 
When  these  cloacce  are  restored,  and  lively  streams  of  mountain 
water  are  made  to  course  through  all  their  veins  and  arteries, 
then,  and  not  till  then,  may  this  old  university  be  reconstructed 
and  perform  a  part  in  the  renovation  of  the  Empire. 

Creation  is  sometimes  easier  than  reformation.  It  was  a  con- 
viction of  this  fact  that  led  the  more  enlightened  among  the 
Chinese  ministers  some  years  ago  to  favor  the  establishment  of 
a  new  institution  for  the  cultivation  of  foreign  science,  rather 
than  attempt  to  introduce  it  through  any  of  the  existing  chan- 
nels, such  as  the  Kwotszekien,  Astronomical  College,  or  Board 
of  Works. 

Their  undertaking  met  with  strenuous  opposition  from  a  party 
of  bigoted  conservatives,  headed  by  Wojin,  a  member  of  the 
privy  council,  and  tutor  to  his  Majesty.  Through  his  influence 
mainly,  the  educated  classes  were  induced  to  stand  aloof,  profess- 
ing that  they  would  be  better  employed  in  teaching  the  Western 
barbarians  than  in  learning  from  them.  Wojin  scouted  the  idea 
that  in  so  vast  an  Empire  there  could  be  any  want  of  natives 
who  would  be  found  qualified  to  give  instruction  in  all  the 
branches  proposed  to  be  studied. 

The  Emperor  took  him  at  his  word,  and  told  him  to  come  for- 
ward with  his  men  ;  and  he  might  have  carte-blanche  for  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  rival  school.  He  declined  the  trial  in  the  form 
in  which  it  was  proposed;  but  he  now  has  the  opportunity  of 
making  the  experiment  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale. 

This  hater  of  foreigners  and  vaunter  of  native  science  is  now 


96  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Rector  of  the  Kwotszekien — the  "  School  for  the  Sons  of  the 
Empire."  Let  us  see  what  he  will  make  of  it.  Under  his  care 
will  it  become  a  fountain  of  light,  or  will  it  continue  to  be  what 
it  now  is,  a  wholesale  manufactory  of  spurious  mandarins?* 

*  Wojin  died  not  long  after  his  appointment  to  this  office,  and  at  the 
present  hour  (1879)  the  old  university  continues  to  be  just  what  it  was  eight 
years  ago. 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  97 


THE  SAN  KIAO,  OR  THREE  RELIGIONS  OF  CHINA.* 

THE  religious  experience  of  the  Chinese  is  worthy  of  attentive 
study.  Detached  at  an  early  period  from  the  parent  stock,  and 
for  thousands  of  years  holding  but  little  intercourse  with,  other 
branches  of  the  human  family,  we  are  able  to  ascertain  with  a 
good  degree  of  precision  those  ideas  which  constituted  their 
original  inheritance,  and  to  trace  in  history  the  development  or 
corruption  of  their  primitive  beliefs.  Midway  in  their  long  ca- 
reer, importing  from  India  an  exotic  system,  and  more  recently 
coming  in  contact  with  Mahometanism  and  Christianity,  we  are 
enabled  to  observe  the  manner  in  which  their  indigenous  creeds 
have  been  affected  or  modified  by  foreign  elements. 

In  their  long  experience  each  of  the  leading  systems  has  been 
fairly  tested.  The  arena  has  been  large  enough,  and  the  dura- 
tion of  the  experiment  long  enough,  to  admit  of  each  system 
working  out  its  full  results;  and  these  experiments  are  of  the 
greater  value,  because  they  have  been  wrought  out  in  the  midst 
of  a  highly  organized  society,  and  in  connection  with  a  high  de- 
gree of  intellectual  culture. 

In  their  views  and  practices,  the  Chinese  of  to-day  are  poly-  ' 
tli<'i>tk-  and  idolatrous.  The  evidence  of  this  strikes  the  atten- 
tion of  the  voyager  on  every  hand.  In  the  sanpan  that  carries 
him  to  the  shore,  he  discovers  a  small  shrine  which  contains  an 
image  of  the  river-god,  the  god  of  wealth,  or  Kwanyin  (the  god- 
dess of  mercy).  His  eye  is  charmed  by  the  picturesqueness  of 
pagodas  perched  on  mountain-crags,  and  monasteries  nestling  in 

*  This  paper  first  appeared  in  the  New  -  Englander  quarterly  review, 
April,  1869. 

5 


98  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

sequestered  dells ;  and,  on  entering  even  a  small  town,  he  is  sur- 
prised at  the  extent,  if  not  the  magnificence,  of  temples  erected 
to  Cheng-hwang,  the  "  city  defender,"  and  Confucius,  the  patron 
of  letters.  Heaps  of  gilt  paper  are  consumed  in  the  streets,  ac- 
companied by  volleys  of  fire-crackers.  Bonzes,  modulating  their 
voices  by  the  sound  of  a  wooden  rattle,  fill  the  air  with  their 
melancholy  chant ;  and  processions  wind  through  narrow  lanes, 
bearing  on  their  shoulders  a  silver  effigy  of  the  "  dragon  king," 
the  god  of  rain. 

These  temples,  images,  and  symbols,  he  is  informed,  all  belong 
to  San  kiao  (three  religions).  All  three  are  equally  idolatrous, 
and  he  inquires  in  vain  for  any  influential  native  sect,  which, 
more  enlightened  or  philosophical  than  the  rest,  raises  a  protest 
against  the  prevailing  superstition.  Yet,  on  acquiring  the  lan- 
guage and  studying  the  popular  superstitions  in  their  myriad 
fantastic  shapes,  he  begins  to  discover  traces  of  a  religious  senti- 
ment, deep  and  real,  which  is  not  connected  with  any  of  the  ob- 
jects of  popular  worship — a  veneVation  for  Tien,  or  Heaven,  and 
a  belief  that  in  the  visible  heavens  there  resides  some  vague  pow- 
er who  provides  for  the  wants  of  men,  and  rewards  them  accord- 
ing to  their  deeds. 

Personified  as  Lautienye — not  Heavenly  Father,  as  it  expresses 
the  Christian's  conception  of  combined  tenderness  and  majesty, 
but  literally  "  Old  Father  Heaven,"  much  as  we  say  "  Old  Father 
Time" — or  designated  by  a  hundred  other  appellations,  this  au- 
gust but  unknown  Being,  though  universally  acknowledged,  is 
invoked  or  worshipped  only  to  a  very  limited  extent.  Some,  at 
the  close  of  the  year,  present  a  thank-offering  to  the  Great  Pow- 
er who  has  controlled  the  course  of  its  events ;  others  burn  a 
stick  of  incense  every  evening  under  the  open  sky ;  and  in  the 
marriage  ceremony  all  classes  bow  down  before  Tien  as  the  first 
of  the  five  objects  of  veneration.* 

*  The  other  four  are  the  earth,  the  prince,  parents,  and  teachers. 

* 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  99 

"When  taxed  with  ingratitude  in  neglecting  to  honor  that  Be- 
ing on  whom  they  depend  for  existence,  the  Chinese  uniformly  I 
reply,  "  It  is  not  ingratitude,  but  reverence,  that  prevents  our  \ 
worship.     He  is  too  great  for  us  to  worship.     None  but  the 
Emperor  is  worthy  to  lay  an  offering  on  the  altar  of  Heaven." 
In  conformity  with  this  sentiment,  the  Emperor,  as  the  high- 
priest  and  mediator  of  his  people,  celebrates  in  Peking  the  wor- 
ship of  Heaven  with  imposing  ceremonies. 

Within  the  gates  of  the  southern  division  of  the  capital,  and 
surrounded  by  a  sacred  grove  so  extensive  that  the  silence  of  its 
deep  shades  is  never  broken  by  the  noises  of  the  busy  world, 
stands  the  Temple  of  Heaven.  It  consists  of  a  single  tower, 
whose  tiling  of  resplendent  azure  is  intended  to  represent  the 
form  and  color  of  the  aerial  vault.  It  costaioSLJlo  image,  and  | 
the  solemn  rites  are  not  performed  within  the  tower ;  but,  on  a 
marble  altar  which  stands  before  it,  a  bullock  is  offered  once  a 
year  as  a  burnt-sacrifice,  while  the  master  of  the  Empire  pros- 
trates himself  in  adoration  of  the  Spirit  of  the  Universe.* 

This  is  the  high-place  of  Chinese  devotion ;  and  the  thought- 
ful visitor  feels  that  he  ought  to  tread  its  courts  with  unsandalled 
feet.f  For  no  vulgar  idolatry  has  entered  here :  this  mountain-  \ 
top  still  stands  above  the  waves  of  corruption,  and  on  this  soli- 
tary altar  there  still  rests  a  faint  ray  of  the  primeval  faith.  The 
tablet  which  represents  the  invisible  Deity  is  inscribed  with  the 
name  of  Shangte,  the  Suprome  Ruler;  and  as  we  contemplate 
the  Majesty  of  the  Empire  prostrate  before  it  while  the  smoke 
ascends  from  his  burning  sacrifice,  our  thoughts  are  irresistibly 

*  Another  tower  of  similar  structure  but  larger  dimensions  stands  in  a 
separate  enclosure  as  a  kind  of  vestibule  to  the  more  sacred  place.  It  is 
called  jjjjf-  &f  1^  and  here  it  is  that  the  Emperor  prays  for  "fruitful  sea- 
sons." 

f  Dr.  Legge,  the  distinguished  translator  of  the  Chinese  Classics,  visiting 
Peking  some  years  after  this  was  written,  actually  "  put  his  shoes  from  off 
his  feet "  before  ascending  the  steps  of  the  great  altar. 


100  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

carried  back  to  the  time  when  the  King  of  Salem  officiated  as 
••  1'rie-t  of  the  Most  High  God." 

The  writings  and  the  institutions  of  the  Chinese  are  not,  like 
those  of  the  Hindoos  and  the  Hebrews,  pervaded  with  the  idea 
of  God.  It  is,  nevertheless,  expressed  "in  their  ancient  books 
with  so  much  clearness  as  to  make  us  wonder  and  lament  that 
it  has  left  so  faint  an  impression  on  the  national  mind. 

In  their  books  of  History  it  is  recorded  that  music  was  in- 
vented for  the  praise  of  Shangte.  Rival  claimants  for  the  throne 
appeal  to  the  judgment  of  Shangte.  He  is  the  arbiter  of  na- 
tions, and,  while  actuated  by  benevolence,  is  yet  capable  of  being 
provoked  to  wrath  by  the  iniquities  of  men.  In  the  Book  of 
Changes  he  is  represented  as  restoring  life  to  torpid  nature  on 
the  return  of  spring.  In  the  Book  of  Rites  it  is  said  that  the 
ancients  "  prayed  for  grain  to  Shangte,"  and  presented  in  offer- 
ing a  bullock,  which  must  be  without  blemish,  and  stall-fed  for 
three  months  before  the  day  of  sacrifice.  In  the  Book  of  Odes, 
mostly  composed  from  eight  hundred  to  a  thousand  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  containing  fragments  of  still  higher  an- 
tiquity, Shangte  is  represented  as  seated  on  a  lofty  throne,  while 
the  spirits  of  the  good  "  walk  up  and  down  on  his  right  and 
left." 

In  none  of  these  writings  is  Shangte  clothed  in  the  human 
form  or  debased  by  human  passion  like  the  Zeus  of  the  Greek. 
Xhere  is  in  them  even  less  of  anthropomorphism  than  we  find 
in  the  representations  of  Jehovah  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
The  nearest  approach  to  exhibiting  him  in  the  human  form  is 
the  ascription  to  Shangte  of  a  "  huge  footprint,"  probably  an 
impression  on  some  mass  of  rock.  But  how  far  the  conception 
of  the  Supreme  Ruler  is  removed  from  gross  materialism  may 
be  inferred  from  that  line  in  one  of  the  ancient  odes,  Shangte 
wu  sheng  wu  hiu — "  God  has  no  voice  or  odor,"  i.  e.  he  is  im- 
gerceptible  by  the  senses.  And  the  philosopher  Chuhe  says,  in 
his  Commentary  on  the  Ancient  Classics,  that  "  Shangte  is  le" 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.          101 

i.  e.  a  principle  of  nature.  Educated  Chinese,  on  embracing 
Christianity,  assert  that  the  Shangte  of  their  fathers  was  identi- 
cal with  the  Tienchu,  the  Lord  of  Heaven,  whom  they  are  taught 
to  worship.* 

There  is  therefore  no  need  of  an  extended  argument,  even  if 
our  space  would  admit  of  it,  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  early 
Chinese  were  by  no  means  destitute  of  the  knowledge  of  God. 
They  did  not,  indeed,  know  him  as  the  Creator,  but  they  recog- 
nized him  as  supreme  in  providence,  and  without  beginning  or  end.  \ 

Whence  came  this  conception  ?  Was  it  the  mature  result  of 
ages  of  speculation,  or  was  it  brought  down  from  remote  an- 
tiquity on  the  stream  of  patriarchal  tradition?  The  latter,  we 
think,  is  the  only  probable  hypothesis.  In  the  earlier  books  of 
the  Chinese  there  is  no  trace  of  speculative  inquiry.  They  raise 
no  question  as  to  the  nature  of  Shangte,  or  the  grounds  of  their 
faith  in  such  a  being,  but  in  their  first  pages  allude  to  him  as 
already  well  known,  and  speak  of  burnt-offerings  made  to  him 
on  mountain-tops  as  an  established  rite.  Indeed,  the  idea  of 
Shangte,  when  it  first  meets  us,  is  not  in  the  process  of  develop- 
ment, but  already  in  the  first  stages  of  decay.  The  beginnings 
of  that  idolatry  by  which  it  was  subsequently  almost  obliterated 
are  distinctly  traceable.  The  heavenly  bodies,  the  spirits  of  the 
hills  and  rivers,  and  even  the  spirits  of  deceased  men,  were  ad- 
mitted to  a  share  in  the  divine  honors  of  Shangte.  The  religious 
sentiment  was  frittered  away  by  being  directed  to  a  multiplicity 
of  objects,  and  the  popular  mind  seemed  to  take  refuge  among 
the  creatures  of  its  own  fancy,  as  Adam  did  amidst  the  trees  of 
the  Garden,  from  the  terrible  idea  of  a  holy  God.  A  debasing 
superstition  became  universal.  Such  was  the  state  of  things 
prior  to  the  rise  of  the  Three  Religions. 


*  Paul  Seu,  a  member  of  the  Hanliu  Academy,  and  cabinet  minister  under 
the  Ming  dynasty,  makes  this  assertion  in  an  eloquent  apology  addressed  to 
the  throne  in  behalf  of  his  new  faith  and  its  teachers. 


102  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

In  order  to  understand  the  mutual  relations  of  these  three 
systems — in  other  words,  to  understand  the  religious  aspects  of 
China  at  the  present  day — it  will  be  necessary  to  give  separate 
attention  to  the  rise  and  progress  of  each.  We  begin  with  Con- 
fucianism. 

There  are  two  classes  of  great  men  who  leave  their  mark  on 
the  condition  of  their  species — those  who  change  the  course  of 
history  without  any  far-reaching  purpose,  much  as  a  falling  cliff 
changes  the  direction  of  a  stream ;  and  those,  again,  who,  like 
skilful  engineers,  excavate  a  channel  for  the  thought  of  future 
generations.  Pre-eminent  among  the  latter  stands  the  name  of 
Confucius.  Honored  during  his  lifetime  to  such  a  degree  that 
the  princes  of  several  states  lamented  his  decease  like  that  of  a 
father,  his  influence  has  deepened  with  time  and  extended  with 
the  swelling  multitudes  of  his  people.  Buddhism  and  Tauism 
both  give  signs  of  decay,  but  the  influence  and  the  memory  of 
Confucius  continue  as  green  as  the  cypresses  that  shade  his  tomb. 
After  the  lapse  of  three-and-twenty  centuries,  he  has  a  temple 
in  every  city,  and  an  effigy  in  every  schoolroom.  He  is  vener- 
ated as  the  fountain  of  wisdom  by  all  the  votaries  of  letters, 
and  worshipped  by  the  mandarins  of  the  realm  as  the  author  of 
their  civil  polity.  The  estimation  in  which  his  teachings  continue 
to  be  held  is  well  exhibited  in  the  reply  which  the  people  of 
Shantung,  his  native  province,  gave  to  a  missionary  who,  some 
thirty  years  ago,  offered  them  Christian  books :  "  We  have  seen 
your  books,"  said  they,  "  and  neither  desire  nor  approve  of  them. 
In  the  instructions  of  our  Sage  we  have  sufficient,  and  they  are 
superior  to  any  foreign  doctrines  that  you  can  bring  us." 

Born  B.C.  551,  and  endowed  with  uncommon  talents,  Con- 
fucius was  far  from  relying  on  the  fertility  of  his  own  genius. 
"Reading  without  thought  is  fruitless,  and  thought  without 
reading  dangerous,"  is  a  maxim  which  he  taught  his  disciples, 
and  one  which  he  had  doubtless  followed  in  the  formation  of  his 
own  mind.  China  already  possessed  accumulated  treasures  of 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  103 

literature  and  history.  With  these  materials  he  stored  his 
memory,  and  by  the  aid  of  reflection  digested  them  into  a  sys- 
tem for  the  use  of  posterity. 

Filled  with  enthusiasm  by  the  study  of  the  ancients,  and 
mourning  over  the  degeneracy  of  his  own  times,  he  entered  at 
an  early  age  on  the  vocation  of  reformer.  He  at  first  sought  to 
effect  his  objects  by  obtaining  civil  office  and  setting  an  example 
of  good  government,  as  well  as  by  giving  instruction  to  those 
who  became  his  disciples.  At  the  age  of  fifty-five  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  premiership  of  his  native  State ;  and  in  a  few 
months  the  improvement  in  the  public  morals  was  manifest. 
Valuables  might  be  exposed  in  the  street  without  being  stolen, 
and  shepherds  abandoned  the  practice  of  filling  their  sheep  with 
water  before  leading  them  to  market. 

The  circumstance  that  led  him  to  renounce  political  life  is 
worth  recording.  The  little  kingdom  of  Lu  grew  apace  in 
wealth  and  prosperity;  and  the  princes  of  rival  states,  in  order 
to  prevent  its  acquiring  an  ascendency  in  the  politics  of  the 
Empire,  felt  it  necessary  to  counteract  the  influence  of  the  wise 
legislator.  Resorting  to  a  stratagem  similar  to  that  which  Louis 
XIV.  employed  with  Charles  II.,  they  sent  to  the  Prince  of  Lu, 
instead  of  brave  generals  or  astute  statesmen,  a  band  of  beautiful 
girls  who  were  skilled  in  music  and  dancing.  The  prince,  young 
and  amorous,  was  caught  in  the  snare,  and,  giving  the  rein  to 
pleasure,  abandoned  all  the  schemes  of  reform  with  which  he  had 
been  inspired  by  the  counsels  of  the  Sage.  Disappointed  and 
disgusted,  Confucius  retired  into  private  life. 

Thwarted,  as  he  had  often  been,  by  royal  pride  and  official 
jealousy,  he  henceforth  endeavored  to  attain  his  ends  by  a  less 
direct  but  more  certain  method.  He  devoted  himself  more  than 
ever  to  the  instruction  of  youth.  His  fame  attracted  young 
men  of  promise  from  all  the  surrounding  principalities.  No 
fewer  than  three  thousand  received  his  instructions,  among  whom 
five  hundred  became  distinguished  mandarins,  and  seventy-two 


104  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

of  them  are  enrolled  on  the  list  of  the  sages  of  the. Empire. 
Through  these  and  the  books  which  he  edited  subsequently  to 
this  period,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  he  exerted  a  greater  in- 
fluence on  the  destinies  of  the  Empire  than  he  could  have  done 
had  he  been  seated  on  the  Imperial  throne.  He  won  for  him- 
self the  title  of  Su  Wang,  "the  unsceptred  monarch,"  whose 
intellectual  sway  is  acknowledged  by  all  ages. 

Confucius  understood  the  power  of  proverbs,  and,  incorporat- 
ing into  his  system  such  as  met  his  approval,  he  cast  his  own 
teachings  in  the  same  mould.  His  speeches  are  laconic  and 
oracular,  and  he  has  transmitted  to  posterity  a  body  of  political 
ethics  expressed  in  formula?  so  brief  and  comprehensive  that 
it  may  easily  be  retained  in  the  weakest  memory.  Thus,  kuin 
chieng,  fu  tsz,  fu  fu,  hiungte,  pung  yiu,  are  ten  syllables  which 
every  boy  in  China  has  at  his  tongue's  end.  They  contain  the 
entire  framework  of  the  social  fabric — the  "  five  relations"  of 
sovereign  and  subject,  parent  and  child,  husband  and  wife,  broth- 
er and  brother,  friend  and  friend,  which,  according  to  the  Chi- 
nese, comprehend  the  whole  duty  of  man  as  a  social  being. 
The  five  cardinal  virtues — benevolence,  justice,  order,  prudence, 
and  fidelity — so  essential  to  the  well-being  of  society,  Confucius 
inculcated  in  the  five  syllables  jen  e  le  che  sin. 

The  following  sentences,  taken  from  his  miscellaneous  dis- 
courses, may  serve  as  illustrations  of  both  the  style  and  the 
matter  of  his  teaching : 

"Good  government  consists  in  making  the  prince  a  prince, 
the  subject  a  subject,  the  parent  a  parent,  and  the  child  a  child." 

"  Beware  of  doing  to  another  what  you  would  not  that  other* 
should  do  to  you." 

"He  that  is  not  offended  at  being  misunderstood  is  a  su- 
perior man." 

"  Have  no  friend  who  is  inferior  to  yourself  in  virtue." 

"  Be  not  afraid  to  correct  a  fault.  He  that  knows  the  right 
and  fears  to  do  it  is  not  a  brave  man." 


THE    SAN    KIAO,  OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  105 

"  If  you  guide  the  people  by  laws,  and  enforce  the  laws  by 
punishment,  they  will  lose  the  sense  of  shame  and  seek  to  evade 
them  ;  but  if  you  guide  them  by  a  virtuous  example,  and  diffuse 
among  them  a  love  of  order,  they  will  be  ashamed  to  trans- 
gress." 

"  To  know  what  we  know,  and  to  know  what  we  do  not  know, 
is  knowledge." 

"  We  know  not  life,  how  can  we  know  death  ?" 

"  The  filial  son  is  one  who  gives  his  parents  no  anxiety  but  for 
his  health." 

Filial  piety,  Confucius  taught,  is  not  merely  a  domestic  virtue, 
but  diffuses  its  influence  through  all  the  actions  of  life.  A  son 
who  disgraces  his  parents  in  any  way  is  unfilial ;  one  who  mal- 
treats a  brother  or  a  relative,  forgetful  of  the  bonds  of  a  com- 
mon parentage,  is  unfilial.  This  powerful  motive  is  thus  render- 
ed expansive  in  its  application,  like  piety  to  God  in  the  Christian 
system,  for  which,  indeed,  it  serves  as  a  partial  substitute.  It  is 
beautifully  elaborated  in  the  Hiao  king,  the  most  popular  of  the 
Thirteen  Classics. 

Virtue,  Confucius  taught  with  Aristotle,  is  the  mean  between 
two  vices,  and  this  theory  is  developed  by  his  grandson  in  the 
Chungyung,  the  sublimest  of  the  sacred  books. 

The  secret  of  good  government,  he  taught,  consists  in  the  cul- 
tivation of  personal  virtue  on  the  part  of  rulers ;  and  the  con- 
nection between  private  morals  and  national  politics  is  well  set 
forth  in  the  Ta  hio,  or  Great  Study. 

This  brief  tractate  is  the  only  formal  composition,  with  the 
exception  of  an  outline  of  history,  which  the  Great  Sage  put  forth 
as  the  product  of  his  own  pen.  "  I  am  an  editor,  and  not  an 
author,"  is  the  modest  account  which  he  gives  of  himself,  and  it 
is  mainly  to  his  labors  in  this  department  that  China  is  indebted 
for  her  knowledge  of  antecedent  antiquity. 

The  spirit  in  which  he  discharged  this  double  duty  to  the  past 
and  future  may  be  inferred  from  the  impressive  ceremony  with 

5* 


106  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

which  he  concluded  his  great  task.  Assembling  his  disciples,  he 
led  them  to  the  summit  of  a  neighboring  hill,  where  sacrifices 
were  usually  offered.  Here  he  erected  an  altar,  and  placing  on 
it  an  edition  of  the  sacred  books  which  he  had  just  completed, 
the  gray-haired  philosopher,  now  seventy  years  of  age,  fell  on 
his  knees,  devoutly  returned  thanks  for  having  had  life  and 
strength  granted  him  to  accomplish  that  laborious  undertaking, 
at  the  same  time  imploring  that  the  benefit  his  countrymen 
would  receive  from  it  might  not  be  small.  "  Chinese  pictures," 
says  Pauthier,  "represent  the  Sage  in  the  attitude  of  supplica- 
tion, and  a  beam  of  light  or  a  rainbow  descending  on  the  sacred 
volumes,  while  his  disciples  stand  around  him  in  admiring  won- 
der."* 

Thales  expired  about  the  time  Confucius  drew  his  infant 
breath,  and  Pythagoras  was  his  contemporary,  but  the  only 
names  among  the  Greeks  which  admit  of  comparisoiLwith  that 
of  Confucius  are  Socrates  and  Aristotle,  the  former  of  whom 
revolutionized  the  philosophy  of  Greece,  and  the  latter  ruled  the 
dialectics  of  mediaeval  Europe.  Without  the  discursive  elo- 
quence of  the  one  or  the  logical  acumen  of  the  other,  Confucius 
surpassed  them  both  in  practical  wisdom,  and  exceeds  them  im- 
measurably in  the  depth,  extent,  and  permanence  of  his  influ- 
ence. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  when  missionaries  attempt  to  direct 
their  attention  to  the  Saviour,  the  Chinese  point  to  Confucius 
and  challenge  comparison ;  nor  that  they  should  sometimes  fail 
to  be  satisfied  with  the  arguments  employed  to  establish  the  su- 
periority of  Jesus  Christ.  But  the  thoughtful  Christian  who 
has  studied  the  canonical  books  of  China  can  hardly  return  to 
the  perusal  of  the  New  Testament  without  a  deeper  conviction 
of  its  divine  authority.  In  the  Confucian  classics  he  detects 

*  Since  reading  this  passage  in  Pauthier,  I  have  myself  seen  this  picture 
in  a  native  pictorial  biography  of  Confucius. 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OE    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  107 

none  of  that  impurity  which  defiles  the  pages  of  Greek  and  Ro- 
man authors,  and  none  of  that  monstrous  mythology  which  con- 
stitutes so  large  a  portion  of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos, 
but  he  discovers  defects  enough  to  make  him  turn  with  grati- 
tude to  the  revelations  of  the  "  Teacher  sent  from  God." 

Disgusted  at  the  superstitions  of  the  vulgar,  and  desirous  of 
guarding  his  followers  against  similar  excesses,  Confucius  led 
them  into  the  opposite  extreme  of  scepticism.  He  ignored,  if 
he  did  not  deny,  those  cardinal  doctrines  of  all  religion,  the  im- 
mortality of  the  soul,  and  the  personal  existence  of  God,  both  of 
which  were  currently  received  in  his  day.  In  place  of  Shangte 
(Supreme  Ruler),  the  name  under  which  the  God  of  Nature 
had  been  worshipped  in  earlier  ages,  he  made  use  of  the  vague 
appellation  T'ien  (Heaven) ;  thus  opening  the  way,  on  the  one 
hand,  for  that  atheism  with  which  their  modern  philosophy  is  so 
deeply  infected,  and,  on  the  other,  for  that  idolatry  which  noth- 
ing but  the  doctrine  of  a  personal  God  can  effectually  counteract. 
When  his  pupils  proposed  inquiries  respecting  a  future  state,  he 
either  discouraged  them  or  answered  ambiguously,  and  thus  de- 
prived his  own  precepts  of  the  support  they  might  have  derived 
from  the  sanctions  of  a  coming  retribution.  Thus  in  a  remark- 
able discourse  reported  in  the  Kia-yu — a  collection  the  authority 
of  which  is  not,  however,  above  suspicion — he  says,  "  If  I  should 
say  the  soul  survives  the  body,  I  fear  the  filial  would  neglect  their 
living  parents  in  their  zeal  to  serve  their  deceased  ancestors.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  I  should  say  the  soul  does  not  survive,  I  fear 
lest  the  unfilial  should  throw  away  the  bodies  of  their  parents 
and  leave  them  unburied." 

We  may  add  that,  while  his  writings  abound  in  the  praises  of 
virtue,  not  a  line  can  be  found  inculcating  the  pursuit  of  truth. 
Expediency,  not  truth,  is  the  goal  of  his  system.  Contrast  with 
this  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  which  pronounces  him  the  only  free« 
man  whom  the  "  truth  makes  free,"  and  promises  to  his  follow- 
ers "  the  Spirit  of  Truth  "  as  his  richest  legacy. 


108  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

The  style  of  Confucius  was  an  ipse-dixit  dogmatism,  and  it 
has  left  its  impress  on  the  unreasoning  habit  of  the  Chinese 
mind.  Jesus  Christ  appealed  to  evidence  and  challenged  in- 
quiry, and  this  characteristic  of  our  religion  has  shown  itself  in 
the  mental  development  of  Christian  nations.  Nor  is  the  con- 
trast less  striking  in  another  point.  Illius  dicta,  hujus  facia 
laudantur,  to  borrow  the  words  of  Tully  in  comparing  Cato 
with  Socrates.  Confucius  selected  disciples  who  should  be  the 
depositaries  of  his  teachings ;  Christ  chose  apostles  who  should 
be  witnesses  of  his  actions.  Confucius  died  lamenting  that  the 
edifice  he  had  labored  so  long  to  erect  was  crumbling  to  ruin. 
Christ's  death  was  the  crowning  act  of  his  life ;  and  his  last 
words,  "  It  is  finished." 

It  was  a  philosophy,  not  a  religion,  that  Confucius  aimed  to 
propagate.  "  Our  Master/'  say  his  disciples,  "  spake  little  con- 
cerning the  gods."  He  preferred  to  confine  his  teachings  to 
the  more  tangible  realities  of  human  life ;  but  so  far  from  set- 
ting himself  to  reform  the  vulgar  superstition,  he  conformed  to 
its  silly  ceremonies  and  enjoined  the  same  course  on  his  disci- 
ples. "  Treat  the  gods  with  respect,"  he  said  to  them,  but,  he 
added,  in  terms  which  leave  no  ambiguity  in  the  meaning  of 
the  precept,  "  keep  them  at  a  distance,"  or,  rather,  "  keep  out  of 
their  way."  A  cold  sneer  was  not  sufficient  to  wither  or  eradi- 
cate the  existing  idolatry,  and  the  teachings  of  Confucius  gave 
authority  and  prevalence  to  many  idolatrous  usages  which  were 
only  partially  current  before  his  day. 

Confucianism  now  stands  forth  as  the  leading  religion  of  the 
Empire.  Its  objects  of  worship  are  of  three  classes — the  pow- 
ers of  nature,  ancestors,  and  heroes.  Originally  recognizing  the 
existence  of  a  Supreme  personal  Deity,  it  has  degenerated  into 
a  pantheistic  medley,  and  renders  worship  to  an  impersonal 
anima  mundi  under  the  leading  forms  of  visible  nature.  Be- 
sides the  concrete  universe,  separate  honors  are  paid  to  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars,  mountains,  rivers,  and  lakes. 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OK    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  109 

Of  all  their  religious  observances,  the  worship  of  ancestors  is 
that  which  the  Chinese  regard  as  the  most  sacred.  As  ./Eneas 
obtained  the  name  of  "Pius"  in  honor  of  his  filial  devotion,  so 
the  Chinese  idea  of  piety  rises  no  higher.  The  Emperor,  ac- 
cording to  the  Confucian  school,  may  worship  the  Spirit  of  the 
Universe,  but  for  his  subjects  it  is  sufficient  that  each  present 
offerings  to  the  spirits  of  his  own  ancestors.  These  rites  are 
performed  either  at  the  family  tombs  or  in  the  family  temple, 
where  wooden  tablets,  inscribed  with  their  names,  are  preserved 
as  sacred  to  the  memory  of  the  deceased,  and  worshipped  pre- 
cisely in  the  same  manner  as  the  popular  idols. 

The  class  of  deified  heroes  comprehends  illustrious  sages, 
eminent  sovereigns,  faithful  statesmen,  valiant  warriors,  filial 
sons,  and  public  benefactors — Confucius  himself  occupying  the 
first  place,  and  constituting,  as  the  Chinese  say,  "  one  of  a  trinity 
with  Heaven  and  Earth." 

Like  Confucianism,  Tauism  is  indigenous  to  China,  and, 
coeval  with  the  former  in  its  origin,  it  was  also  coheir  to  the 
mixed  inheritance  of  good  and  evil  contained  in  the  more  an- 
cient creeds.  The  Tauists  derive  their  name  from  tau,  rea- 
son, and  call  themselves  Rationalists;  but,  with  a  marvellous 
show  of  profundity,  nothing  can  be  more  irrational  than  their 
doctrine  and  practice.  Their. founder,  Li-ejj,  appears  to  have 
possessed  a  great  mind,  and  to  have  caught  glimpses  of  several 
sublime  truths ;  but  he  has  been  sadly  misrepresented  by  his 
degenerate  followers.  He  lived  in  the  sixth  century  B.C..  and 
was  contemporary  with,  but  older  than,  Confucius.  So  great 
was  the  fame  of  his  wisdom  that  the  latter  philosopher  sought 
his  instructions;  but,  differing  from  him  in  mental  mould  as 
widely  as  Aristotle  did  from  Plato,  he  could  not  relish  the  bold- 
ness of  his  speculations  or  the  vague  obscurity  of  his  style.  He 
never  repeated  his  visit,  though  he  always  spoke  of  him  with 
respect  and  even  with  admiration. 

Lautsz,  the  "  old  Master,"  is  the  appellation   by  which  the 


110  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

great  Tauist  is  commonly  known,  and  it  was  probably  given 
him  during  his  lifetime  to  distinguish  him  from  his  younger 
rival.  The  rendering  of  "  old  child  "  is  no  more  to  be  received 
than  the  fiction  of  eighty  years'  gestation  invented  to  account 
for  it. 

Lautsz  bequeathed  his  doctrines  to  posterity  in  "five  thousand 
\voi-ilV  which  compose  the  Tau  teh  king,  the  Rule  ofjleason 
and  Virtue.  In  expression,  this  work  is  extremely  sententious ; 
and  in  the  form  of  its  composition,  semi-poetical.  It  abounds 
in  acute  apothegms,  and  some  of  its  passages  rise  to  the  charac- 
ter of  sublimity ;  but  so  incoherent  are  its  contents  that  it  is 
Imp.—  il'lr  f<>r  any  literal  interpretation  to  form  them  into  a  sys- 
tem. Its  inconsistencies,  however,  readily  yield  to  that  universal 
solvent — the  hypothesis  of  a  mystical  meaning  underlying  the 
letter  of  the  text.  The  following  passage  appears  to  embody 
some  obscure  but  lofty  conceptions  of  the  True  God : 

"  That  \\  liieh  is  invisible  is  called  ye. 
That  which  is  inaudible  is  called  he. 

•4 

That,  which  is  impalpable  is  called  wei. 

Thc-r  three  are  inscrutable,  and  blended  in  one. 

The  first  is  not  the  brighter ;  nor  the  last  the  darker. 

It    is    interminable,  ineffable,  and    existed    when    there   was 

nothing. 

A  shape  without  shape,  a  form  without  form. 
A  confounding  mystery ! 
Go  back,  you  cannot  discover  its  beginning. 
Go  forward,  you  cannot  find  its  end. 
Take  the  ancient  Reason  to  govern  the  present, 
And  you  will  know  the  origin  of  old. 
This  is  the  first  principle  of  Tau.'1'' 

Some  European  scholars  discover  here  a  notion  of  the  Trinity, 
and,  combining  the  syllables  ye,  he,  and  wei — for  which  process, 
however,  they  are  unable  to  assign  any  very  good  reason — they 
obtain  yehewei,  which  they  accept  as  a  distorted  representation 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.          Ill 

of  the  name  Jehovah.  Lautsz  is  said  to  have  travelled  in  coun- 
tries to  the  west  of  China,  where  it  is  supposed  he  may  have 
met  with  Jews,  and  learned  from  them  the  name  and  nature  of 
the  Supreme  Being.  Whatever  truth  there  may  be  in  these 
conjectures,  it  is  certain  that  some  native  commentators  recog- 
nize in  the  passage  a  description  of  Shangte,  the  God  of  the 
Chinese  patriarchs;  and  the  three  syllables  of  which  the  name 
is  composed  are  admitted  to  have  no  assignable  meaning  in  the 
Chinese  language. 

Here  we  find  a  connection  between  the  degenerate  philosophy 
of  after-ages  and  the  pure  fountain  of  primeval  truth.  In  fact, 
this  very  Shangte,  though  they  have  debased  the  name  by  be- 
stowing it  on  a  whole  class  of  their  dii  superiores,  is  still  en- 
throned on  the  summit  of  the  Tauist  Olympus,  with  ascriptions 
more  expressive  of  his  absolute  divinity  than  any  to  be  met 
with  in  the  canonical  books  of  the  Confucian  school.  At  the 
head  of  their  Theogony  stands  the  triad  of  the  San  tsiny,  the 
"  Tliree  Pure  "  ones ;  the  first  of  whom  is  styled  "  The  mysteri- 
ous sovereign  who  has  no  superior;"  " The  self-existent  source 
ami  beginning;"  the  "Honored  one  of  Heaven." 

He  is  said  to  have  created  the  "  three  worlds ;"  ^to  jiave  pro- 
duced men  and  gods;  to  have  set  the  stars  in  motion,  and  caused 
the  planets  to  revolve.  But,  alas !  this  catalogue  of  sublime 
titles  and  divine  attributes  is  the  epitaph  of  a  buried  faith. 
The  Tauists  persuaded  themselves  that  this  August  Being, 
wrapped  in  the  solitude  of  his  own  perfections,  had  delegated 
the  government  of  the  universe  to  a  subordinate,  whom  they 
style  Yuhwang  Shangte.  The  former  has  dwindled  into  an 
inoperative  idea,  the  latter  is  recognized  as  the  actual  God ;  and 
this  deity,  who  plays  mayor  of  the  palace  to  a  roi  faineant,  is 
regarded  as  the  apotheosis  of  a  mortal  by  the  name  of  Chang,  an 
ancestor  of  the  present  hierarch  of  the  Tauist  religion.  It  is 
painful,  after  discoursing  to  them  of  the  attributes  of  the  True 
God,  to  hear  the  people  exclaim,  "  That  is  our  Yuhwang  Shangte." 


112  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

In  its  philosophy,  this  school  is  radically  and  thoroughly 
materialistic.  The  soul  itself  they  regard  as  a  material  sub- 
stance, though  of  a  more  refined  quality  than  the  body  it  inhab- 
its. Liable  to  dissolution,  together  with  the  body,  it  may  be 
rendered  capable  of  surviving  the  wreck  by  undergoing  a  pre- 
vious discipline ;  and  even  the  body  is  capable  of  becoming  in- 
vulnerable by  the  stroke  of  death,  so  that  the  etherealized  form 
will,  instead  of  being  laid  in  the  grave,  be  wafted  away  to  the 
abodes  of  the  genii.  It  is  scarcely  possible  to  represent  the 
extent  to  which  this  idea  fired  the  minds  of  the  Chinese  for 
ages  after  its  promulgation,  or  to  estimate  the  magnitude  of  its 
consequences.  The  prospect  of  a  corporeal  immortality  had 
for  them  attractions  far  stronger  than  a  shadowy  existence  in 
the  land  of  spirits;  and  they  sought  it  with  an  eagerness  amount- 
ing to  frenzy.  The  elixir  of  life  became  the  grand  object  of 
pursuit,  and  alchemy,  with  its  foolish  failures  and  grand  achieve- 
ments, sprang  directly  from  the  religion  of  Tau.* 

The  leading  principle  of  Tauistn,  of  which  their  dogma  con- 
cerning the  human  soul  is  only  a  particular  application,  is  that 
every  species  of  matter  possesses  a  soul — a  subtile  essence  en- 
dowed with  individual  conscious  life.  Freed  from  their  grosser 
elements,  these  become  the  genii  that  preside  over  the  various 
departments  of  nature.  Some  wander  at  will  through  the  realms 
of  space,  endowed  with  a  protean  facility  of  transformation ; 
others,  more  pure  and  ethereal,  rise  to  the  regions  of  the  stars, 
and  take  their  places  in  the  firmament.  Thus  the  five  principal 
planets  are  called  by  the  names  of  the  "  five  elements "  from 
which  they  are  believed  to  have  originated,  and  over  which  they 
are  regarded  as  presiding.  The  stars  are  divinities,  and  their 
motions  control  the  destinies  of  men  and  things — a  notion  which 
has  done  much  to  inspire  the  zeal  of  the  Chinese  for  recording 
the  phenomena  of  the  heavens. 

*  See  Essay  on  Alchemy  in  this  volume. 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.          113 

A  theogony  like  this  is  rich  in  the  elements  of  poetry ;  and 
most  of  the  machinery  in  Chinese  works  of  imagination  is,  in 
fact,  derived  from  this  source.  The  Liauchai,  for  example,  a 
collection  of  marvellous  tales  which,  in  their  general  character, 
may  be  compared  to  the  Metamorphoses  of  Ovid,  is  largely 
founded  on  the  Tauist  mythology. 

In  accordance  with  the  materialistic  character  of  the  Tauist 
sect,  nearly  all  the  gods  whom  the  Chinese  regard  as  presiding 
over  their  material  interests  originated  with  this  school.  The 
god  of  rain,  the  god  of  fire,  the  god  of  medicine,  the  god  of 
agriculture,  and  the  lares,  or  kitchen  gods,  are  among  the  princi- 
pal of  this  class. 

A  system  which  supplies  deities  answering  to  the  leading 
wants  and  desires  of  mankind  cannot  be  uninfluential ;  but,  in 
addition  to  the  strong  motives  that  attract  worshippers  to  their 
temples,  the  Tauist  priesthood  possess  two  independent  sources 
of  influence.  They  hold  the  monopoly  of  geomancy,  a  super- 
stitious art  which  professes  to  select  on  scientific  principles 
those  localities  that  are  most  propitious  for  building  and  burial ; 
and  they  have  succeeded  in  persuading  the  people  that  they 
alone  are  able  to  secure  them  from  annoyance  by  evil  spirits. 
The  philosophy  of  Tau  has  thus  not  only  given  birth  to  a  re- 
ligion, but  degenerated  into  a  system  of  magical  imposture,  pre- 
sided over  by  an  arch-magician  who  lives  in  almost  imperial 
state,*  and  sways  the  sceptre  over  the  spirits  of  the  invisible 
world  as  the  Emperor  does  over  the  living  population  of  the 
Empire. 

As  a  religion,  Buddhism  seems  to  enjoy  more  of  the  popular 
favor  than  Tauism ;  though  the  former  professes  to  draw  men 
away  from  the  world  and  its  vanities,  while  the  latter  proffers 
the  blessings  of  health,  wealth,  and  long  life. 

*  This  is  not  quite  true  of  the  present  High-priest,  who  is  so  reduced  in 
circumstances  that  he  sometimes  leaves  his  residence  in  the  Lunghu  moun- 
tains to  raise  money  in  wealthier  regions. 


114  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

It  is  rarely  that  we  find  a  Buddhist  temple  of  any  considera- 
ble reputation  that  is  not  situated  in  a  locality  distinguished  for 
some  feature  of  its  natural  scenery.  One  situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  dusty  plain,  not  far  from  the  gates  of  Tientsin,  seemed  to 
us,  when  we  first  visited  it,  to  present  a  striking  exception  to  the 
general  rule.  Subsequently,  however,  a  brilliant  mirage,  which 
we  frequently  saw  as  we  approached  the  temple,  furnished  us  at 
once  with  the  explanation  of  its  location  and  its  name.  It  is 
called  the  temple  of  the  "  Sea  of  Light ;"  and  its  founders,  no 
doubt,  placed  it  there  in  order  that  the  deceptive  mirage,  which 
is  always  visible  in  bright  sunny  weather,  might  serve  its  con- 
templative inmates  as  a  memento  of  the  chief  tenet  of  their 
philosophy — that  all  things  are  unreal,  and  human  life  itself  a 
shifting  phantasmagoria  of  empty  shadows. 

Sequestered  valleys  enclosed  by  mountain-peaks,  and  elevated 
far  above  the  world  which  they  profess  to  despise,  are  favorite 
seats  for  the  monastic  communities  of  Buddhism.  But  it  is  no 
yearning  after  God  that  leads  them  to  court  retirement ;  nor  is 
it  the  adoration  of  nature's  Author  that  prompts  them  to  place 
their  shrines  in  the  midst  of  his  sublimest  works.  To  them  the 
universe  is  a  vacuum,  and  emptiness  the  highest  object  of  con- 
templation. 

They  are  a  strange  paradox — religious  atheists !  Acknowledg- 
ing no  First  Cause  or  Conscious  Ruling  Power,  they  hold  that 
the  human  soul  revolves  perpetually  in  the  urn  of  fate,  liable  to 
endless  ills,  and  enjoying  no  real  good.  As  it  cannot  cease  to  be, 
its  only  resource  against  this  state  of  interminable  misery  is  the 
extinction  of  consciousness — a  remedy  which  lies  within  itself, 
and  which  they  endeavor  to  attain  by  ascetic  exercises. 

Their  daily  prayers  consist  of  endless  repetitions,  which  are 
not  expected  to  be  heard  by  the  unconscious  deity  to  whom  they 
are  addressed,  but  are  confessedly  designed  merely  to  exert  a 
reflex  influence  on  the  worshipper — i.  e.  to  occupy  the  mind 
with  empty  sounds  and  withdraw  it  from  thought  and  feeling. 


THE    SAN    KIAO,  OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  115 

Tama,  one  of  their  saints,  is  said  thus  to  have  sat  motionless  for 
nine  years  with  his  face  to  the  wall ;  not  engaged,  as  a  German 
would  conjecture,  in  "  thinking  the  wall,"  but  occupied  with  the 
more  difficult  task  of  thinking  nothing  at  all. 

Those  in  whom  the  discipline  is  completest  are  believed  to 
have  entered  the  Nirvana — not  an  Elysium  of  conscious  enjoy- 
ment, but  a  negative  state  of  exemption  from  pain.  Such  is  the 
condition  of  all  the  Buddhas,  who,  though  the  name  is  taken  to 
signify  supreme  intelligence,  are  reduced  to  an  empty  abstraction 
in  a  state  which  is  described  as  pu  sheng  pu  mie,  "  neither  life 
nor  death;"  and  such  is  the  aspiration  of  all  their  votaries. 
Melancholy  spectacle !  Men  of  acute  minds,  bewildered  in  the 
maze  of  their  own  speculations,  and  seeking  to  attain  perfection 
by  stripping  themselves  of  the  highest  attributes  of  humanity  ! 

As  a  philosophy,  Buddhism  resembles  Stoicism  in  deriving 
its  leading  motive  from  the  fear  of  evil.  But  while  the  latter 
encased  itself  in  panoply,  and,  standing  in  martial  attitude,  de- 
fied the  world  to  spoil  the  treasures  laid  up  in  its  bosom,  the 
former  seeks  security  by  emptying  the  soul  of  its  susceptibilities 
and  leaving  nothing  that  is  capable  of  being  harmed  or  lost — 
i.  e.  treating  the  soul  as  Epictetus  is  said  to  have  done  his  dwell- 
ing-house, in  order  that  he  might  not  be  annoyed  by  the  visits 
of  thieves.  It  dries  up  the  sources  of  life,  wraps  the  soul  in  the 
cerements  of  the  grave,  and  aims  to  convert  a  living  being  into 
a  spiritual  mummy  which  shall  survive  all  changes  without  being 
affected  by  them. 

This  is  the  spirit  and  these  the  principles  of  esoteric  Buddhism 
as  enunciated  by  those  members  of  the  inner  circle  whose  wan 
cheeks  and  sunken,  rayless  eyes  indicate  that  they  are  far  ad- 
vanced in  the  process  of  self-annihilation.  In  their  external  man- 
ifestations they  vary  with  different  schools  and  countries,  the 
lamas  of  Tartary  and  the  sarmanas  of  Ceylon  appearing  to  have 
little  in  common. 

To  adapt  itself  to  the  comprehension  of  the  masses,  Buddhism 


116  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Las  personified  its  abstract  conceptions  and  converted  them  into 
divinities ;  while,  to  pave  the  way  for  its  easier  introduction,  it 
readily  embraces  the  gods  and  heroes  of  each  country  in  its  com- 
prehensive pantheon. 

In  China  the  Nirvana  was  found  to  be  too  subtle  an  idea  for 
popular  contemplation,  and,  in  order  to  furnish  the  people  with  a 
more  attract! /e  object  of  worship,  the  Buddhists  brought  for- 
ward a  Goddess  of  Mercy,  whose  highest  merit  was  that,  having 
reached  the  verge  of  Nirvana,  she  declined  to  enter,  preferring 
to  remain  where  she  could  hear  the  cries  and  succor  the  calami- 
ties of  those  who  were  struggling  with  the  manifold  evils  of  a 
world  of  change.  From  this  circumstance  she  is  called  the  Tsz'- 
pei  Kwan-yin,  the  "  merciful  goddess  who  hears  the  prayers  "  of 
men. 

This  winning  attribute  meets  a  want  of  humanity,  and  makes 
her  a  favorite  among  the  votaries  of  the  faith.  While  the  Three 
Buddhas  hold  a  more  prominent  position  in  the  temple,  she  occu- 
pies the  first  place  in  the  hearts  of  their  worshippers.  Temples 
of  a  secondary  class  are  often  devoted  especially  to  her ;  and  in 
the  greater  ones  she  almost  always  finds  a  shrine  or  corner  where 
she  is  represented  with  a  thousand  hands  ready  to  succor  human 
suffering,  or  holding  in  her  arms  a  beautiful  infant,  and  ready  to 
confer  the  blessing  of  offspring  on  her  faithful  worshippers — in 
this  last  attitude  resembling  the  favorite  object  of  popular  wor- 
ship in  papal  countries. 

In  the  Sea-light  Monastery  above  referred  to,  she  appears  in  a 
large  side  hall,  habited  in  a  cloak,  her  head  encircled  by  an  in- 
scription in  gilded  characters  which  proclaims  her  as  the  "  god- 
dess whose  favor  protects  the  second  birth.'1''  This  language  seems 
to  express  a  Christian  thought ;  but  in  reality  nothing  could  be 
more  intensely  pagan.  It  relates  to  the  transmigration  of  souls, 
which  is  the  fundamental  doctrine  of  the  system ;  and  informs 
the  visitor  that  this  is  the  divinity  to  whom  he  is  to  look  for 
protection  in  passing  through  the  successive  changes  of  his  fut- 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  117 

ure  existence.  Within  the  mazes  of  that  mighty  labyrinth, 
there  is  room  for  every  condition  of  life  on  earth,  and  for  pur- 
gatories and  paradises  innumerable  besides.  Beyond  these  the 
common  Buddhist  never  looks.  To  earn  by  works  of  merit — 
which  play  an  important  part  in  the  modified  system — the  re- 
version of  a  comfortable  mandarinate,  or  a  place  in  the  "  Para- 
dise of  the  Western  Sky,"  bounds  his  aspirations.  And  to  es- 
cape from  having  their  souls  triturated  in  a  spiritual  mortar,  or 
ground  between  spiritual  millstones  in  Hades;  or  avoid  the 
doom  of  dwelling  in  the  body  of  a  brute  on  earth,  constitutes 
with  the  ignorant  the  strongest  motive  to  deter  them  from  vice 
— those  and  a  thousand  other  penalties  being  set  forth  by  pict- 
ures and  rude  casts  to  impress  the  minds  of  such  as  are  unable 
to  read. 

Buddhism  was  little  known  in  China  prior  to  the  year  A.D. 
66.  At  that  time  the  Emperor  Mingte  of  the  Han  dynasty  is 
said  to  have  had  a  remarkable  dream  that  led  to  its  introduction. 
He  had  seen,  he  said  to  his  courtiers,  a  man  of  gold,  holding  in 
his  hand  a  bow  and  two  arrows.  They,  recognizing  in  these  ob- 
jects the  elements  of  Foh — the  name  of  Buddha  as  it  is  written 
in  the  Chinese  language — and  calling  to  mind  a  saying  ascribed 
to  Confucius,  "  that  the  Holy  One  is  in  the  West,"  expounded 
the  dream  as  an  intimation  that  the  Buddhist  religion  ought  to 
be  introduced  from  India.  The  embassy  thus  sent  to  the  West 
by  Imperial  command,  in  quest  of  a  foreign  religion,  was,  it  is 
thought,  incited  by  some  indistinct  rumor  of  the  appearance  of 
our  Saviour  in  Judea;  and  it  is  interesting  to  speculate  as  to 
what  the  condition  of  China  might  have  been  if  the  ambassadors, 
instead  of  stopping  in  India,  had  proceeded  to  Palestine.  As  it 
is,  the  success  of  Buddhism  demonstrates  the  possibility  of  a  for- 
eign faith  taking  root  in  the  soil  of  China. 

The  San  Kiao,  or  Three  Religions,  have  now  passed  in  revi- 
sion. We  have  viewed  them,  however,  owing  to  the  limits  of  our 
space,  only  in  outline,  neither  allowing  ourselves,  on  the  one  hand, 


118  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

to  follow  out  those  superstitious  practices  which  attach  them- 
selves to  the  several  schools  like  the  moss  and  ivy  that  festoon 
the  boughs  of  aged  trees,  nor,  on  the  other,  to  enter  into  a  mi- 
nute investigation  of  those  systems  of  philosophy  in  which  they 
have  their  root.  The  fact  that  each  takes  its  rise  in  a  school 
of  philosophy  is  significant  of  the  tendencies  of  human  thought, 

The  Confucian  philosophy  in  its  prominent  characteristics  was 
ethical,  occupying  itself  mainly  with  social  relations  and  civil 
duties,  shunning  studiously  all  questions  that  enter  into  onto- 
logical  subtleties  or  partake  of  the  marvellous  and  the  super- 
natural. 

The  philosophy  of  Tau  as  developed  by  the  followers  of 
Lautsze,  if  not  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  left  by  their  master, 
may  be  characterized  as  physical.  For  the  individual  it  pre- 
scribed a  physical  discipline;  and,  without  any  conception  of 
true  science,  it  was  filled  with  the  idea  of  inexhaustible  re- 
sources, hidden  in  the  elements  of  material  nature. 

The  Buddhist  philosophy  was  pre-eminently  metaphysical. 
Originating  with  a  people  who,  far  more  than  the  Chinese,  are 
addicted  to  abstruse  speculations,  it  occupied  itself  with  subtle 
inquiries  into  the  nature  and  faculties  of  the  human  mind,  the 
veracity  of  its  perceptions,  and  the  grounds  of  our  delusive  faith 
in  the  independent  existence  of  an  external  world. 

These  three  philosophies,  differing  thus  widely  in  their  essential 
character — one  being  thoroughly  material,  another  purely  ideal, 
and  the  third  repudiating  all  such  questions  and  holding  itself 
neutral  and  indifferent — yet  exhibit  some  remarkable  points  of 
agreement.  They  agree  in  the  original  omission  or  negation  of 
religious  ideas ;  and  they  coincide  no  less  remarkably  in  evolving 
each,  from  its  negative  basis,  a  system  of  religion ;  and  in  con- 
tributing each  its  quota  to  the  popular  idolatry. 

Confucius  "  seldom  spoke  of  the  divinities,"  and  taught  his 
disciples  to  "  keep  them  at  a  distance ;"  and  yet  the  forms  of  re- 
spect which  he  enjoined  for  deceased  ancestors  led  to  their  virt- 


THE    SAN    KIAO,  OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  119 

ual  deification,  and  promoted,  if  it  did  not  originate,  the  nation- 
al hero-worship.  Like  the  modern  apostle  of  positivism,  pro- 
fessing to  occupy  himself  wholly  with  positive  ideas — like  him, 
he  was  unable  to  satisfy  the  cravings  of  his  spiritual  nature 
without  having  recourse  to  a  religion  of  humanity. 

The  Buddhist  creed  denies  alike  the  reality  of  the  material 
world  and  the  existence  of  an  overruling  mind ;  yet  it  has  peo- 
pled an  ideal  universe  with  a  race  of  ideal  gods,  all  of  whom  are 
entities  in  the  belief  of  the  vulgar. 

The  Tauist  creed  acknowledges  no  such  category  as  that  of 
spirit  in  contradistinction  from  matter;  yet  it  swarms  heaven 
and  earth  with  tutelar  spirits  whom  the  people  regard  as  di- 
vine. 

We  see  here  a  process  directly  the  reverse  of  that  which  cer- 
tain atheistic  writers  of  modern  Europe  assert  to  be  the  natural 
progress  of  the  human  mind.  According  to  them,  men  set  out 
with  the  belief  of  many  gods,  whom  they  at  length  reduce  to 
unity,  and  finally  supersede  by  recognizing  the  laws  of  nature  as 
independent  of  a  personal  administrator.  The  history  of  China 
is  fatal  to  this  theory.  The  worship  of  one  God  is  the  oldest 
form  of  Chinese  religion,  and  idolatry  is  an  innovation.  Even 
now  new  idols  are  constantly  taking  their  place  in  the  national 
pantheon ;  and  so  strong  is  the  tendency  in  this  direction  that 
in  every  case  where  philosophy  has  laid  the  foundation,  idolatry 
has  come  in  to  complete  the  structure. 

It  is  incorrect  to  assert  that  any  one  of  the  San  Kiao  is  a  State 
religion  to  the  exclusion  of  the  others,  though  the  Confucian  is 
sometimes  so  regarded  on  account  of  its  greater  influence  with 
the  ruling  classes  and  its  marked  prominence  in  connection  with 
State  ceremonials.  Not  only  are  they  all  recognized  and  toler- 
ated, but  they  all  share  the  Imperial  patronage.  The  shrines  of 
each  of  the  Three  Religions  are  often  erected  by  Imperial  munif- 
icence, and  their  priests  and  sacred  rites  provided  for  at  the 
Imperial  expense  with  impartial  liberality. 


120  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Not  only  do  they  coexist  without  conflict  in  the  Empire,  but 
they  exercise  a  joint  sway  over  almost  every  mind  in  its  immense 
population.  It  is  impossible  to  apportion  the  people  among 
these  several  creeds.  They  are  all  Confucians,  all  Buddhists,  all 
Tauists.  They  all  reverence  Confucius  and  worship  their  ances- 
tors— all  participate  in  the  "  feast  of  hungry  ghosts,"  and  employ 
the  Buddhist  burial-service ;  and  all  resort  to  the  magical  devices 
of  the  Tauists  >x>  protect  themselves  against  the  assaults  of  evil 
spirits,  or  secure  "good  luck  "  in  business.  They  celebrate  their 
marriages  according  to  the  Confucian  rites;  in  building  their 
houses,  and  in  cases  of  alarming  illness,  they  ask  the  advice  of  a 
Tauist ;  and  at  death  they  commit  their  souls  to  the  keeping  of 
the  Buddhists.  The  people  assert,  and  with  truth,  that  these  re- 
ligious, originally  three,  have  become  one;  and  they  are  accus- 
tomed to  symbolize  this  unity  by  erecting  San  kiao  tang  tem- 
ples of  the  Three  Religions,  in  which  Lautsze  and  Buddha  appear 
on  the  right  and  left  of  Confucius  as  completing  the  triad  of 
sages.  This  arrangement,  however,  gives  great  offence  to  some 
of  the  more  zealous  disciples  of  the  latter ;  and  a  few  years  ago 
a  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Emperor,  praying  him  to  de- 
stroy the  San  kiao  tariff,  which  stood  near  the  tomb  of  their 
great  teacher,  who  has  "  no  equal  but  Heaven." 

This  feeling  is  only  a  faint  echo  of  a  determined  opposition 
which  for  ages  withstood  the  advance  of  the  rival  systems,  and 
which  has  now  been  overcome  to  such  an  extent  that  they  hold 
a  co-ordinate  place  in  the  popular  mind,  and  receive  nearly  equal 
honors  at  the  hand  of  the  government. 

The  effects  of  this  coalition  may  be  traced  in  their  literature 
as  well  as  in  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.  Of  this, 
one  example  will  suffice,  though  we  might  go  on,  if  space  per- 
mitted, to  show  how  freely  the  later  works  of  each  school  appro- 
priate the  phraseology  of  the  others,  and  to  point  out  the  extent 
to  which  the  general  language  of  the  country  has  been  enriched 
by  a  vocabulary  of  religious  terms,  chiefly  of  Buddhist  origin,  all 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  121 

of  which  are  incorporated  in  the  Imperial  Dictionary  and  pass 
as  current  coin  in  the  halls  of  the  literary  tribunal. 

In  the  collection  of  Tales  above  referred  to,  there  is  a  story 
which  owes  its  humor  to  the  bizarre  intermixture  of  elements 
from  each  of  the  Three  Keligions. 

A  young  nobleman,  riding  out,  hawk  in  hand,  is  thrown  from 
his  horse  and  taken  up  for  dead.  On  being  conveyed  to  his 
house,  he  opens  his  eyes  and  gradually  recovers  his  bodily 
strength ;  but  to  the  grief  of  his  family,  he  is  hopelessly  insane. 
He  fancies  himself  a  Buddhist  priest,  repels  the  caresses  of  the 
ladies  of  his  harem,  and  insists  on  being  conveyed  to  a  distant 
province,  where  he  affirms  he  has  passed  his  life  in  a  monas- 
tery. On  arriving  he  proves  himself  to  be  the  abbot ;  and  the 
mystery  of  his  transfiguration  is  at  once  solved. 

The  young  nobleman  had  led  a  dissolute  life,  and  his  flimsy 
soul,  unable  to  sustain  the  shock  of  death,  was  at  once  dissipated. 
The  soul  of  a  priest  who  had  just  expired  happened  to  be  float- 
ing by,  and,  led  by  that  desire  to  inhabit  a  body  which  some  say 
impelled  the  devils  to  enter  the  herd  of  swine,  it  took  possession 
of  the  still  warm  corpse. 

The  young  nobleman  was  a  Confucian  of  the  modern  type. 
The  idea  of  the  soul  changing  its  earthy  tenement  is  Buddhistic. 
And  that  which  rendered  the  metamorphosis  possible,  without 
waiting  for  another  birth,  was  the  Tauist  doctrine  that  the  soul 
is  dissolved  with  the  body,  unless  it  be  purified  and  concentrated 
by  vigorous  discipline. 

It  is  curious  to  inquire  on  what  principles  this  reconciliation 
has  been  effected.  Have  the  three  creeds  mingled  together  like 
gases  in  the  atmosphere,  each  contributing  some  ingredient  to 
the  composition  of  a  vital  fluid ;  or  blended  like  the  rays  of  the 
spectrum,  each  imparting  its  own  hue,  and  all  concurring  in  the 
production  of  light  ?  Alas !  it  is  not  a  healthy  atmosphere  that 
supplies  the  breath  of  the  new-born  soul  in  China;  no  pure  or 
steady  light  cheers  its  opening  eyes.  Yet  each  of  these  systems 

6 


122  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

meets  a  want ;  and  the  whole,  taken  together,  supplies  the  crav- 
ings of  nature  as  well  perhaps  as  any  creed  not  derived  from  a 
divine  revelation. 

The  Three  Religions  are  not,  as  the  natives  thoughtlessly  as- 
sume, identical  in  signification  and  differing  only  in  their  mode 
of  expression.  As  we  have  already  seen,  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
conceive  of  three  creeds  more  totally  distinct  or  radically  antag- 
onistic ;  and  yet,  to  a  certain  extent,  they  are  supplementary. 
And  to  this  it  is  that  they  owe  their  union  and  their  perma- 
nence. 

Confucius  gave  his  people  an  elaborate  theory  of  their  social 
organization  and  civil  polity ;  but  when  they  looked  abroad  on 
nature  with  its  unsolved  problems,  they  were  unable  to  confine 
their  thoughts  within  the  limits  of  his  cautious  positivism.  They 
were  fascinated  by  mystery,  and  felt  that  in  nature  there  were 
elements  of  the  supernatural  which  they  could  not  ignore,  even 
if  they  did  not  understand  them.  Hence  the  rise  of  Tauism, 
captivating  the  imagination  by  its  hierarchy  of  spirits  and  per- 
sonified powers,  and  meeting,  in  some  degree,  the  longing  for  a 
future  life  by  maintaining,  though  under  hard  conditions,  the 
possible  achievement  of  a  corporeal  immortality. 

With  the  momentous  question  of  existence  suspended  on  this 
bare  possibility,  Buddhism  came  to  them  like  an  evangel  of  hope, 
assuring  every  man  of  an  inalienable  interest  in  a  life  to  come. 
It  gave  them  a  better  psychology  of  the  human  mind  than  they 
had  before  possessed ;  afforded  a  plausible  explanation  of  the  in- 
equalities in  the  condition  of  men ;  and,  by  the  theory  of  me- 
tempsychosis, seemed  to  reveal  the  link  that  connects  man  with 
the  lower  animals,  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  gods,  on  the 
other.  No  wonder  it  excited  the  popular  mind  to  a  pitch  of 
enthusiasm,  and  provoked  the  adherents  of  the  other  creeds  to 
virulent  opposition. 

Tauism,  as  opposed  to  it,  became  more  decidedly  material, 
and  Confucianism  more  positively  atheistic.  The  disciples  of 


THE    SAN    KIAO,   OR    THREE    RELIGIONS    OF    CHINA.  123 

the  latter  especially  assailed  it  with  acrimonious  controversy — 
denying,  though  they  had  hitherto  been  silent  on  such  questions, 
the  personality  of  God  and  the  future  life  of  the  human  soul. 

Now,  however,  the  effervescence  of  passions  has  died  away — 
the  antagonistic  elements  have  long  since  neutralized  each  other, 
and  the  three  creeds  have  subsided  into  a  stable  equilibrium,  or 
rather  become  compacted  into  a  firm  conglomerate.  The  ethi- 
cal, the  physical,  and  the  metaphysical  live  together  in  harmony. 
The  school  that  denies  the  existence  of  matter,  that  which  oc- 
cupies itself  wholly  with  the  properties  of  matter,  and  that, 
again,  which  denounces  the  subtleties  of  both  have  ceased  their 
controversies.  One  deriving  its  motive  from  the  fear  of  death, 
another  actuated  by  a  dread  of  the  evils  attendant  on  human 
life,  and  the  third  absorbed  in  the  present  and  indifferent  alike 
to  hope  or  fear,  all  are  accepted  with  equal  faith  by  an  unreason- 
ing populace.  Without  perceiving  their  points  of  discrepancy, 
or  understanding  the  manner  in  which  they  supplement  each 
other,  they  accept  each  as  answering  to  certain  cravings  of  their 
inward  nature,  and  blend  them  all  in  a  huge  heterogeneous  and 
incongruous  creed. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  inquire,  had  we  sufficient  space, 
what  have  been  the  intellectual  and  moral  influences  of  these 
several  systems,  separate  and  combined.  They  have,  it  is  true, 
given  rise  to  various  forms  of  degrading  superstition,  and,  sup- 
porting instead  of  destroying  each  other,  they  bind  the  mind 
of  the  nation  in  threefold  fetters ;  still,  we  are  inclined  to  think 
that  each  has  served  a  useful  purpose  in  the  long  education  of 
the  Chinese  people.  But,  in  the  providence  of  God,  the  time 
has  now  come  when  they  are  offered  a  better  faith — one  which 
is  in  every  part  consistent  with  itself  and  adequate  to  satisfy  all 
their  spiritual  necessities.  Will  they  receive  it  ?  The  habit  of 
receiving  such  contradictory  systems  has  rendered  their  minds 
almost  incapable  of  weighing  evidence ;  and  they  never  ask  con- 
cerning a  religion  "  is  it  true  ?"  but  "  is  it  good  ?"  Christianity, 


124  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

however,  with  its  exclusive  and  peremptory  claims,  has  already 
begun  to  arouse  their  attention  ;  and  when  the  spirit  of  inquiry 
is  once  thoroughly  awakened,  the  San  Kiao,  or  Three  Creeds, 
will  not  long  sustain  the  ordeal. 

NOTE. — As  the  reader  may  be  at  a  loss  to  reconcile  some  of 
the  statements  in  the  foregoing  article,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
remind  him  that  each  of  the  Three  Systems  appears  under  a 
twofold  aspect — first  as  an  esoteric  philosophy,  and  afterwards  as 
a  popular  religion.  Thus  a  chief  object  of  the  discipline  en- 
joined by  the  founder  of  Buddhism  was  the  extinction  of  indi- 
vidual consciousness ;  yet  the  Chinese  embraced  it  as  their  best 
assurance  of  a  future  life.  What  the  philosopher  was  anxious 
to  cast  away,  the  populace  were  eager  to  possess. 


REMARKS  ON  THE   ETHICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE   CHINESE.    125 


REMARKS   ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE 
CHINESE.* 

WIDELY  as  the  Chinese  have  departed  from  the  meagre  out- 
line of  a  religious  system  left  them  by  Confucius,  they  have 
generally  adhered  to  his  moral  teachings.  Developed  by  his 
followers,  received  by  the  suffrages  of  the  whole  people,  and  en- 
forced by  the  sanctions  of  the  Three  Religions,  the  principles 
which  he  inculcated  may  be  said  to  have  moulded  the  social  life 
of  one  third  of  the  human  family.  These  are  nowhere  to  be 
found  digested  into  a  scientific  form,  but  diffused  through  the 
mingled  masses  of  physics  and  metaphysics  which  compose  the 
Sing-li  Ta-tseuen,  or  sparkling  in  the  detached  apothegms  of 
"The  Sages."  Happily  for  our  convenience  we  have  them 
brought  to  a  focus  in  the  chart  a  translation  of  which  is  given 
below. 

We  shall  confine  ourselves  to  the  task  of  explaining  this  im- 
portant document,  as  the  best  method  of  exhibiting  the  system 
in  its  practical  influence;  though  an  independent  view  would 
afford  freer  scope  for  developing  its  principles. 

This  chart  is  anonymous;  but  the  want  of  a  name  detracts 
nothing  from  its  value.  The  author  has  no  merit  beyond  the 
idea  of  presenting  the  subject  in  a  tabular  view,  and  the  pic- 
torial taste  with  which  he  has  executed  the  design.  Of  the 
ethical  system  so  exhibited  he  originated  nothing ;  and  the  pop- 
ularity of  his  work  is  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  it  is  regarded 

*  Read  before  the  American  Oriental  Society  in  1861 ;  published  in  the 
Princeton  Review,  1862. 


126  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

as  a  faithful  synopsis  of  the  Confucian  morals.  In  this  view  it 
is  highly  esteemed  by  the  Sien-sengs  of  Ningpo,  a  city  which 
ranks  among  the  foremost  in  the  Chinese  Empire  in  point  of 
literary  culture.* 

The  half-illuminated  sphere  prefixed  to  the  chart  has  scarcely 
more  connection  with  its  subject-matter  than  the  royal  coat-of- 
arms  stamped  on  the  title-page  of  some  editions  has  with  the 
contents  of  King  James's  Bible.  It  represents  the  mundane  egg, 
or  mass  of  chaotic  matter,  containing  Yin  and  Yang,  the  semi- 
nal principles  from  whose  action  and  reaction  all  things  were 
evolved.  Woo-keih  produced  Tai-keih ;  Tai-keih  produced  Yin 
and  Yang ;  and  these  dual  principles  generated  all  things.  This 
is  the  lucid  cosmogony  of  the  Chinese ;  and  it  adds  little  to  its 
clearness  to  render  the  above  terms,  as  they  are  usually  translated, 
by  the  "  great  extreme,"  the  "  male  and  female  powers,"  etc. 

The  primitive  signification  of  Yang  and  Yin  is  light  and 
darkness,  a  meaning  exhibited  in  the  shading  of  the  diagram. 
Tai-keih  may  be  rendered  the  Great  Finite,  and  Woo-keih,  the 
Indefinite  or  Infinite.  We  have,  then,  the  following  statement 
as  the  starting-point  of  their  philosophy  and  history  : 

The  Infinite  produced  the  Finite  (the  conditioned),  and  the 
Finite  evolved  light  and  darkness.  The  passage,  thus  given,  is 
rational.  It  admits  a  creative  power  anterior  to  chaos,  makes 
the  production  of  light  one  of  the  earliest  of  creative  acts,  and, 
with  at  least  poetical  truth,  ascribes  the  generation  of  all  things 
to  the  action  of  light  and  darkness,  or  the  succession  of  days 
and  seasons.  It  is  so  far  consonant  with  the  Genesis  of  the 
Christian  Scriptures.  Whether  it  was  ever  so  understood,  it  is 
impossible  to  affirm ;  though  it  is  certain  that  no  such  meaning 
is  attached  to  it  at  the  present  day. 

The  dual  principles  of  the  Chinese,  as  explained  by  them- 
selves, are  not  light  and  darkness ;  neither  are  they,  like  those 

*  The  chart  was  obtained  at  Ningpo. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  127 

of  the  ancient  Persians,  the  antagonistic  powers  of  good  and 
evil.  The  creation  and  preservation  of  the  universe  are  ascribed 
to  them ;  and  yet  they  are  not  regarded  as  deities,  but  as  un- 
conscious impersonal  agents.  Popularly  they  are  understood, 
in  a  phallic  sense,  as  the  energies  of  the  universal  sexual  system  ; 
and  philosophically  as  certain  forces,  positive  and  negative,  to 
which,  automatic  and  uncontrolled  by  any  intelligence,  are  ref- 
erable all  the  changes  in  the  universe.  They  are  the  pillars  of  a 
materialistic  atheism. 

Part  I.  is  an  epitome  of  the  Tahio,  the  first  of  the  four  chief 
canonical  books  of  the  Chinese,  and  the  most  admired  produc- 
tion of  their  great  philosopher.* 

Voluminous  as  an  editor,  piously  embalming  the  relics  of  an- 
tiquity, Confucius  occupies  but  a  small  space  as  an  author;  a 
slender  compend  of  history  and  this  little  tract  of  a  few  hun- 
dred words  being  the  only  original  works  which  emanated  from 
his  own  pen.  The  latter,  the  title  of  which  signifies  the  "  Great 
Study,"  is  prized  so  highly  for  the  elegance  of  its  style  and  the 
depth  of  its  wisdom  that  it  may  often  be  seen  inscribed  in  let- 
ters  of  gold,  and  suspended  as  an  ornamental  tableau  in  the 
mansions  of  the  rich.  It  treats  of  the  Practice  of  Virtue  and 
the  Art  of  Government ;  and  in  the  following  table  these  two 
subjects  are  arranged  in  parallel  columns.  In  the  first  we  have 
the  lineaments  of  a  perfect  character  superscribed  by  the  word 
Sheng,  a  "  Holy  Sage,"  the  name  which  the  Chinese  give  to 
their  ideal.  In  the  other  we  have  a  catalogue  of  the  social  vir- 
tues as  they  spread  in  widening  circles  through  the  family,  the 
neighborhood,  the  State,  and  the  world.  These  are  ranged  un- 
der Wang,  the  "  Emperor,"  whose  duty  it  is  to  cherish  them 
in  his  subjects,  the  force  of  example  being  his  chief  instru- 
ment, and  the  cultivation  of  personal  virtue  his  first  obligation. 

*  The  doctrines  of  Confucius  are  well  exhibited  in  an  article  by  the  Rev. 
J.  K.  Wight,  in  the  Princeton  Review  for  April,  1858. 


i  the  True  Tradition  of  the  Holy  Sages, 
btains  this  doctrine  may  live  in  pros- 
die  in  peace.  I  have  accordingly  con- 
ito  a  chart,  to  be  hung  on  the  right  of 
:hair.  to  aid  your  study  of  virtue,  just 
ents  made  use  of  inscriptions  on  their 
wash-basins. 

;eded,  and  established  order  in  society. 

;h  free  scope  for  its  exercise,  it  makes  a 
teformer  of  the  World  —  a  True  King. 
His  aim  is, 

SOCIAL  IMPROVEMENT. 
The  means  to  its  attainment  are  — 

Filial  Piety. 
Fraternal  Love. 
Conjugal  Fidelity. 
Care  in  Choice  of  Associates. 
Strictness  in  Intercourse  of  the  Sexes. 
|  Attention  to  Established  Rules. 
Instruction  to  Children. 
Caution  against  Partiality. 
Harmony  with  Neighbors. 

[  Regard  for  Frugality. 
r  Science  of  Government. 
Power  of  Combination. 

Reverence  for  Heaven  and  Ancestors. 
Discrimination  in  Choice  of  Agents. 
Love  for  the  People. 
Zeal  for  Education. 
v  Strictness  in  Executing  the  Laws. 
'  Wisdom  in  Conducting  War.  [ments. 
Righteousness  in  Rewards  and  Punish- 
Liberality  in  Admittingthe  Expression 
of  Sentiment. 
Frugality  in  Expenditures. 
Skill  in  Legislation. 

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BENEVOLENCE. 
Jpirit.—  Give  all  their  dues,  and  let  not  self  set  up  an  opp 
ing  interest;  but  find  your  own  good  in  the  c< 
mon  weal. 
,  —  Do  not  to  others  what  you  would  not  have  done  to  y 
Remember  not  old  injuries,  and  treat  men  accord 
to  their  several  capacity. 
Hety.  —  Gratify  the  wishes  of  your  parents,  and  wors 
your  ancestors  ;  [nai 
Carry  out  their  purposes,  and  reflect  honor  on  tl 
-Treat  all  children  with  kindness,  not  your  own  only 
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animals.  Fina 

limity.  —  A  great  soul  can  bear  an  offence  without  resc 
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superiority. 
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Rather  suffer  a  wrong  than  do  one. 

Ige  of  Man.  —  Detect  false  pretences;  cleave  to  the  vir 
dislik 

Ige  of  Nature.  —  Be  erudite,  inquisitive,  thoughtful,  disi 
ige  of  Fate.  —  Practise  virtue,  take  care  of  yourself,  do 
he  Eyes  and  Ears.  —  Keep  the  distant  in  clear  view, 
hearken  uot 

POLITENESS. 
—  Proceeding  from  an  inward  feeling. 
It  manifests  itself  in  apparel  and  demeanor. 
—  Treasures  the  fruits  of  observation,  hides  the  bad,  i 

publishes  the  good. 
It  preserves  conjugal  harmony,  and  maintains  decor 
in  the  intercourse  of  the  sexes. 
y.  —  When  rich,  feels  poor;  when  full,  feels  empty. 
Makes  no  boast  of  abilities,  nor  prides  itself  on  pi 

or  reputation. 
:e.  —  Declines  much,  and  takes  little; 
Aud  is  only  solicitous  to  tind  a  lower  place  than  oth< 

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IMJIH 

132  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

The  passage  which  is  here  analyzed,  and  which  constitutes  the 
foundation  of  the  whole  treatise,  is  the  following : 

"Those  ancient  princes  who  desired  to  promote  the  practice 
of  virtue  throughout  the  world  first  took  care  to  govern  their 
own  states.  In  order  to  govern  their  states,  they  first  regulated 
their  own  families.  In  order  to  regulate  their  families,  they  first 
practised  virtue  in  their  own  persons.  In  order  to  the  practice 
of  personal  virtue,  they  first  cultivated  right  feeling.  In  order 
to  insure  right  feeling,  they  first  had  regard  to  the  correctness  of 
their  purposes.  In  order  to  secure  correctness  of  purpose,  they 
extended  their  intelligence.  This  intelligence  is  to  be  obtained 
by  inquiring  into  the  nature  of  things." 

This  diminishing  series  is  beautiful.  However  widely  the 
branches  may  extend,  the  quality  of  their  fruit  is  determined  by 
the  common  root.  Virtue  in  the  State  depends  on  virtue  in  the 
family,  that  of  the  family  on  that  of  the  individual ;  and  indi- 
vidual virtue  depends  not  only  on  right  feelings  and  proper  mo- 
tives, but,  as  a  last  condition,  on  right  knowledge.  Nor  is  there 
anything  in  which  Confucius  more  strikingly  exhibits  the  clear- 
ness of  his  perceptions  than  in  indicating  the  direction  in  which 
this  indispensable  intelligence  is  to  be  sought — viz.,  in  the  nature 
of  things ;  in  understanding  the  relations  which  the  individual 
sustains  to  society  and  the  universe.  The  knowledge  of  these  is 
truth,  conformity  to  them  is  virtue ;  and  moral  obligations,  Con- 
fucius appears,  with  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  to  have  derived  from  a 
perception  of  these  relations,  and  a  sense  of  inherent  fitness  in 
the  nature  of  things.  Just  at  this  point  we  have  a  notable  hia- 
tus. The  editor  tells  us  the  chapter  on  the  Study  of  "  Nature  " 
is  wanting;  and  Chinese  scholars  have  never  ceased  to  deplore 
its  loss. 

But  whatever  of  value  to  the  student  of  virtue  it  may  have 
contained,  it  certainly  did  not  contain  the  "  beginning  of  wis- 
dom." For  skilfully  as  Confucius  had  woven  the  chain  of  hu- 
man relationships,  he  failed  to  connect  the  last  link  with  heaven 


REMARKS   ON   THE   ETHICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE   CHINESE.    133 

— to  point  out  the  highest  class  of  our  relations.  Not  only, 
therefore,  is  one  grand  division  of  our  duties  a  blank  in  his  sys- 
tem, but  it  is  destitute  of  that  higher  light  and  those  stronger 
motives  which  are  necessary  to  stimulate  to  the  performance  of 
the  most  familiar  offices. 

The  young  mandarin  who  said  to  a  member  of  one  of  our 
recent  embassies,  in  answer  to  a  question  as  to  his  object  in  life, 
that  "  he  was  desirous  of  performing  all  his  duties  to  God  and 
man,"  was  not  speaking  in  the  language  of  the  Confucian 
school.  He  had  discovered  a  new  world  in  our  moral  relations 
which  was  unknown  to  the  ancient  philosopher. 

The  principal  relations  of  the  individual  to  society  are  copious- 
ly illustrated  in  this  and  the  other  classics.  They  are  five — the 
governmental,  parental,  conjugal,  fraternal,  and  that  of  friend- 
ship. The  first  is  the  comprehensive  subject  of  the  treatise ; 
and  in  the  second  column  of  the  chart  all  the  others  are  placed 
subordinate  to  it.  Though  not  expressly  named,  they  are  im- 
plied in  the  statement  of  the  first  four  relative  duties — filial 
piety,  fraternal  love,  conjugal  fidelity,  and  choice  of  associates. 
The  last  comprehends  the  principles  which  regulate  general  in- 
tercourse. Conjugal  fidelity,  in  the  sense  of  chastity,  is  made 
obligatory  only  on  the  female.  Fraternal  duty  requires  a  rigid 
subordination,  according  to  the  gradation  of  age,  which  is  aided 
by  a  peculiarity  of  language;  each  elder  brother  being  called 
hiung,  and  each  younger  te  ;  no  common  designation,  like  that 
of  "  brother,"  placing  them  on  equal  footing.  This  arrangement 
in  the  family  Confucius  pronounces  a  discipline,  in  which  re- 
spect is  taught  for  superiors  in  civil  life ;  and  filial  piety,  he 
adds,  is  a  sentiment  which  a  son  who  has  imbibed  it  at  home 
will  carry  into  the  service  of  his  prince. 

Nothing,  in  fact,  is  more  characteristic  of  Chinese  society  than 
the  scope  given  to  filial  piety.  Intensified  into  a  religious  senti- 
ment by  the  worship  which  he  renders  to  his  ancestors,  it  leads 
the  dutiful  son  to  live  and  act  in  all  situations  with  reference  to 


134  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

his  parents.  He  seeks  reputation  for  the  sake  of  reflecting  hon- 
or upon  them,  and  dreads  disgrace  chiefly  through  fear  of  bring- 
ing reproach  on  their  name.  An  un  kindness  to  a  relative  is  a 
sin  against  them,  in  forgetting  the  ties  of  a  common  ancestry ; 
and  even  a  violation  of  the  law  derives  its  turpitude  from  expos- 
ing the  parents  of  the  offender  to  suffer  with  him,  in  person  or 
in  reputation. 

It  is  thus  analogous  in  the  universality  of  its  application  to 
the  incentive  which  the  Christian  derives  from  his  relation  to  the 
"  Father  of  spirits ;"  and  if  inferior  in  its  efficacy,  it  is  yet  far 
more  efficacious  than  any  which  a  pagan  religion  is  capable  of 
supplying.  Its  various  bearings  are  beautifully  traced  by  Con- 
fucius in  a  discourse  which  constitutes  one  of  the  favorite  text- 
books in  the  schools  of  China. 

It  is  not  the  book  that  teaches  it,  but  the  art  of  governing 
thus  founded  on  the  practice  of  virtue,  that  is  emphatically  de- 
nominated the  "  Great  Study  ;"  and  this  designation,  expressing, 
as  it  does,  the  judgment  of  one  from  whose  authority  there  is  no 
appeal,  has  contributed  to  give  ethics  a  decided  preponderance 
among  the  studies  of  the  Chinese. 

Other  sciences,  in  their  estimation,  may  be  interesting  as 
sources  of  intellectual  diversion  or  useful  in  a  subordinate  de- 
gree, as  promotive  of  material  prosperity  ;  but  this  is  the  science, 
whose  knowledge  is  wisdom,  whose  practice  is  virtue,  and  whose 
result  is  happiness.  In  the  literary  examinations,  the  grand  ob- 
ject of  which  is  the  selection  of  men  who  are  qualified  for  the 
service  of  the  government,  an  acquaintance  with  subjects  of  this 
kind  contributes  more  to  official  promotion  than  all  other  intel- 
lectual acquirements ;  and  when  the  aspirant  for  honors  has 
reached  the  summit  of  the  scale,  and  become  a  member  of  the 
Privy  Council  or  Premier  of  the  Empire,  he  receives  no  higher 
appellation  than  that  of  Tahio  she  —  a  Doctor  of  the  Great 
Study,  an  adept  in  the  art  of  government. 

The  Chinese  Empire  has  never  realized  the  Utopia  of  Confu- 


REMARKS   ON   THE   ETHICAL   PHILOSOPHY    OF  THE    CHINESE.    135 

cius ;  but  his  maxims  have  influenced  its  policy  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  in  the  arrangements  of  the  government  a  marked  pref- 
erence is  given  to  moral  over  material  interests.  Indeed,  it 
would  be  hard  to  overestimate  the  influence  which  has  been  ex- 
erted by  this  little  schedule  of  political  ethics,  occupying,  as  it 
has,  so  prominent  a  place  in  the  Chinese  mind  for  four-and- 
twenty  centuries — teaching  the  people  to  regard  the  Empire  as 
a  vast  family,  and  the  Emperor  to  rule  by  moral  influence,  mak- 
ing the  goal  of  his  ambition  not  the  wealth,  but  the  virtue,  of 
his  subjects.  It  is  certain  that  the  doctrines  which  it  embodies 
have  been  largely  efficient  in  rendering  China  what  she  is,  the 
most  ancient  and  the  most  populous  of  existing  nations. 

Part  II.  is  chiefly  interesting  for  the  views  it  presents  of  the 
condition  of  human  nature.  It  is  not,  as  its  title  would  seem  to 
indicate,  a  map  of  the  moral  faculties ;  but  simply  a  delineation 
of  the  two  ways  which  invite  the  footsteps  of  every  human  pil- 
grim. On  the  one  hand  are  traced  the  virtues  that  conduct  to 
happiness ;  on  the  other  the  vices  that  lead  to  misery.  Over 
the  former  is  written  Tao-sin,  "  Wisdom  Heart,"  and  over  the 
latter,  Jin-sin,  "  Human  Heart,"  as  descriptive  of  the  dispositions 
from  which  they  respectively  proceed. 

These  terms,  with  the  two  sentences  of  the  chart  in  which 
they  occur,  originated  in  the  Shu-king,  one  of  the  oldest  of  the 
sacred  books,  and  are  there  ascribed  to  the  Emperor  Shun,  who 
filled  the  throne  about  B.C.  2100.  Quaint  and  ill-defined,  they 
have  been  retained  in  use  through  this  long  period  as  a  simple 
expression  for  an  obvious  truth,  recording  as  the  result  of  a  na- 
tion's experience  that  "  to  err  is  human."  They  contain  no  nice 
distinction  as  to  the  extent  to  which  our  nature  is  infected  with 
evil ;  but  intimate  that  its  general  condition  is  such  that  the 
word  human  may  fairly  be  placed  in  antithesis  to  wisdom  and 
virtue. 

Yet  the  prevailing  view  of  human  nature  maintained  by  Chi- 
nese ethical  writers  is  that  of  its  radical  goodness.  Though  less 


136  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

ancient  than  the  other,  this  latter  is  by  no  means  a  modern  opin- 
ion ;  and  it  is  not  a  little  remarkable  that  some  of  those  ques- 
tions which  agitated  the  Christian  Church  in  the  fifth  century 
were  discussed  in  China  nearly  a  thousand  years  before.  They 
were  not  broached  by  Confucius.  His  genius  was  not  inquisi- 
tive ;  he  was  rather  an  architect  seeking  to  construct  a  noble 
edifice,  than  a  chemist  testing  his  materials  by  minute  analysis. 
And  if  none  are  philosophers  but  those  who  follow  the  clew  of 
truth  through  the  mazes  of  psychological  and  metaphysical  spec- 
ulation, then  he  has  no  right  to  the  title  ;*  but  if  one  who  loves 
wisdom,  perceiving  it  by  intuition  and  recommending  it  with  au- 
thority, be  a  philosopher,  there  are  few  on -the  roll  of  time  who 
deserve  a  higher  position. 

The  next  age,  however,  was  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  inves- 
tigation which  was  due  to  his  influence  only  as  the  intellectual 
impulse  which  he  communicated  set  it  to  thinking.  The  moral 
quality  of  human  nature  became  a  principal  subject  of  discus- 
sion ;  and  every  position  admitted  by  the  subject  was  successive- 
ly occupied  by  some  leading  rnind.  Tsz-sze,  the  grandson  of  the 
Sage,  advanced  a  theory  which  implied  the  goodness  of -human 
nature;  but  Mencius,  his  disciple  (B.C.  317),  was  the  first  who 
distinctly  enunciated  the  doctrine.  Kaoutsze,  one  of  his  con- 
temporaries, maintained  that  nature  is  destitute  of  any  moral 
tendency,  and  wholly  passive  under  the  plastic  hand  of  educa- 
tion. A  discussion  arose  between  them,  a  fragment  of  which, 
preserved  in  the  works  of  Mencius,  will  serve  to  exhibit  their 
mode  of  disputation  as  well  as  the  position  of  the  parties. 

Nature,  said  Kaoutsze,  is  a  stick  of  timber,  and  goodness  is 
the  vessel  that  is  carved  out  of  it. 

1 "  Perhaps  the  subtile  genius  of  Greece  was  in  part  withheld  from  indulg- 
ing study  in  ethical  controversy  by  the  influence  of  Socrates,  who  was  much 
more  a  teacher  of  virtue  than  even  a  searcher  after  truth." — SIR  J.  MACKIN- 
TOSH, Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  137 

The  bowl,  replied  Mencius,  is  not  a  natural  product  of  the 
timber ;  but  the  tree  requires  to  be  destroyed  in  order  to  pro- 
duce it.  Is  it  necessary  to  destroy  man's  nature  in  order  to 
make  him  good? 

Then,  said  Kaoutsze,  varying  his  illustration,  human  nature 
may  be  compared  to  a  stream  of  water.  Open  a  sluice  to  the  east, 
and  it  flows  to  the  east;  open  one  to  the  west,  it  flows  to  the 
westward.  Equally  indifferent  is  human  nature  with  regard  to 
good  and  evil. 

Water,  rejoined  Mencius,  is  indifferent  as  to  the  east  or  the 
west ;  but  has  it  no  choice  between  up  and  down  ?  Now  hu- 
man nature  inclines  to  good,  as  water  does  to  run  downward ; 
and  the  evil  it  does  is  the  effect  of  interference,  jnst  as  water 
may  be  forced  to  run  up  hill.  Man,  he  repeats,  with  rhetoric 
slightly  at  variance  with  his  philosophy,  inclines  to  virtue,  as 
water  does  to  flow  downward,  or  as  the  wild  beast  does  to  seek 
the  forest. 

A  few  years  later,  Seuntsze,  an  acute  and  powerful  writer,  took 
the  ground  that  human  nature  is  evil.  The  influence  of  educa- 
tion he  extolled  in  even  higher  terms  than  Kaoutsze,  maintain- 
ing that  whatever  good  it  produces,  it  achieves  by  a  triumph 
over  nature  which  is  taught  to  yield  obedience  to  the  dictates  of 
prudence :  that  virtue  is  the  slow  result  of  teaching,  and  vice 
the  spontaneous  fruit  of  neglected  nature. 

Yang-tsze,  about  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  en- 
deavored to  combine  these  opposite  views ;  each  contained  im- 
portant truth,  but  neither  of  them  the  whole  truth.  While  hu- 
man nature  possessed  benevolent  affections  and  a  conscience 
approving  of  good,  it  had  also  perverse  desires  and  a  will  that 
chose  the  evil.  It  was  therefore  both  bad  and  good ;  and  the 
character  of  each  individual  took  its  complexion,  as  virtuous  or 
vicious,  according  to  the  class  of  qualities  most  cultivated. 

In  the  great  controversy,  Mencius  gained  the  day.  The  two 
authors  last  named  were  placed  on  the  Index  Expurgatonus  of 


138  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

the  literary  tribunal ;  and  the  advocate  of  human  nature  was 
promoted  to  the  second  place  among  the  oracles  of  the  Empire 
for  having  added  a  new  doctrine  or  developed  a  latent  one  in  the 
Confucian  system.  This  tenet  is  expressed  in  the  first  line  of 
the  San-tsze-king,  an  elementary  book,  which  is  committed  to 
memory  by  every  schoolboy  in  China — Jin  che  ts'u,  sin  pen 
shan — "  Man  commences  life  with  a  virtuous  nature."  But  not- 
withstanding this  addition  to  the  national  creed,  the  ancient 
aphorism  of  Shun  is  still  held  in  esteem ;  and  a  genuine  Con- 
fucian, in  drawing  a  genealogical  tree  of  the  vices,  still  places 
the  root  of  evil  in  the  human  heart. 

To  remove  this  contradiction,  Chuhe,  the  authorized  exposi- 
tor of  the  classics,  devised  a  theory  somewhat  similar  to  Plato's 
account  of  the  origin  of  evil.  It  evidently  partakes  of  the  three 
principal  systems  above  referred  to ;  professing,  according  to  the 
first,  to  vindicate  the  original  goodness  of  human  nature,  yet  ad- 
mitting, with  another,  that  it  contains  some  elements  of  evil — 
and  thus  virtually  symbolizing  with  the  third,  which  represents 
it  as  of  a  mixed  character.  "  The  bright  principle  of  virtue,"  he 
says  in  his  notes  on  the  Taiho,  "  man  derives  from  his  heavenly 
origin ;  and  his  pure  spirit,  when  undarkened,  comprehends  all 
truth,  and  is  adequate  to  every  occasion.  But  it  is  obstructed 
by  the  physical  constitution  and  beclouded  by  the  animal  (lit. 
jin-yuh,  the  human)  desires,  so  that  it  becomes  obscure." 

The  source  of  virtue,  as  indicated  in  the  chart,  is  Taiho — 
"  primordial  harmony ;"  and  vice  is  ascribed  to  the  influence  of 
Wu-hing — "  gross  matter."  The  moral  character  is  determined 
by  the  prevailing  influence,  and  mankind  are  accordingly  divided 
into  three  classes,  which  are  thus  described  in  a  popular  formula : 
Men  of  the  first  class  are  good  without  teaching;  those  of  the 
second  may  be  made  good  by  teaching ;  and  the  last  will  con- 
tinue bad  in  spite  of  teaching. 

The  received  doctrine  in  relation  to  human  nature  does  not 
oppose  such  a  serious  obstacle  as  might  at  first  be  imagined  to 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  139 

the  reception  of  Christianity,  though  there  is  reason  to  fear  that 
it  may  tinge  the  complexion  of  Christian  theology.  The  candid 
and  thoughtful  will  recognize  in  the  Bible  a  complete  view  of  a 
subject  which  their  various  theories  had  only  presented  in  de- 
tached fragments.  In  the  state  of  primitive  purity,  it  gives 
them  a  heaven-imparted  nature  in  its  original  perfection  ;  in  the 
supremacy  of  conscience,  it  admits  a  fact  on  which  they  rely  as 
the  main  support  of  their  doctrine ;  in  the  corruption  of  nature, 
introduced  by  sin,  it  gives  them  a  class  of  facts  to  which  their 
consciousness  abundantly  testifies ;  and  in  its  plan  for  the  resto- 
ration of  the  moral  ruin,  it  excites  hope  and  satisfies  reason. 

The  doctrine  of  human  goodness,  though  supported  by  a  par- 
tial view  of  facts,  seems  rather  to  have  been  suggested  by  views 
of  expediency.  Mencius  denounced  the  tenets  of  Kaoutsze  as 
pernicious  to  the  cause  of  morality,  and  he  no  doubt  considered 
that  to  convince  men  that  they  are  endowed  with  a  virtuous  nat- 
ure is  the  most  effectual  method  of  encouraging  them  to  the 
practice  of  virtue.  In  the  absence  of  revelation,  there  is  nothing 
better.  But  while  faith  in  ourselves  is  a  strong  motive,  faith  in 
God  is  a  stronger  one ;  and  while  the  view  that  man  is  endowed 
with  a  noble  nature,  which  he  only  needs  to  develop  according 
to  its  own  generous  instincts,  is  sublime,  there  is  yet  one  which 
is  more  sublime — viz.,  that  while  fallen  man  is  striving  for  the  re- 
covery of  his  divine  original,  he  must  work  with  fear  and  trem- 
bling, because  it  is  God  that  worketh  in  him.* 

Part  III.,  the  Chart  of  Moral  Excellence  (as  I  have  called  it, 
or,  more  literally,  of  that  which  is  to  be  striven  after  and  held  to), 
presents  us  with  goodness  in  all  its  forms  known  to  the  Chinese. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  grouping,  the  entire  domain  be- 

*  The  writer  acknowledges  a  hint  or  two  on  this  branch  of  the  subject 
from  an  able  paper  of  the  Rev.  Griffith  John,  in  the  Journal  of  tJie  North 
China  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  for  September,  1860,  which, 
however,  did  not  come  to  hand  until  this  article  had  assumed  its  present 
form  and  been  read  on  a  public  occasion. 


140  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

ing  divided  into  five  families,  each  ranged  under  a  parent  virtue. 
The  Greeks  and  Komans  reckoned  four  cardinal  virtues ;  but  a 
difference  in  the  mode  of  division  implies  no  incompleteness  in 
the  treatment  of  the  subject.  The  Chinese  do  not,  because  they 
count 'only  twelve  hours  in  the  day  instead  of  twenty-four,  pre- 
termit any  portion  of  time ;  neither,  when  they  number  twenty- 
eight  signs  in  the  zodiac,  instead  of  twelve,  do  they  assign  an 
undue  length  to  the  starry  girdle  of  the  heavens.  The  classifica- 
tion is  altogether  arbitrary ;  and  Cicero  makes  four  virtues  cover 
the  whole  ground  which  the  Chinese  moralist  refers  to  five. 

But  while,  in  a  formal  treatise,  definition  and  explanation  may 
supply  the  defects  of  nomenclature  or  arrangement,  the  terms  of 
a  general  class,  like  that  of  the  cardinal  virtues,  are  not  without 
effect  on  the  popular  mind.  In  this  respect  the  Chinese  have 
the  advantage.  Theirs  are  Jin,  E,  Che,  Sin,  Le — Benevolence, 
Justice,  Wisdom,  Good  Faith,  Politeness.  *  Those  of  Plato  and 
Tully  are  Justice,  Prudence,.  Fortitude,  and  Temperance.  In 
comparing  these,  Prudence  and  Wisdom  may  be  taken  as  identi- 
cal, though  the  former  appears  to  be  rather  more  circumscribed 
in  its  sphere  and  tinged  with  the  idea  of  self-interest.  Temper- 
ance and  Politeness,  as  explained  in  the  respective  systems,  are 
also  identical — the  Latin  term  contemplating  man  as  an  indi- 
vidual, and  the  Chinese  regarding  him  as  a  member  of  society. 
The  former,  Cicero  defines  as  TO  irpiirov,  and  a  sense  of  propriety 
or  love  of  order  is  precisely  the  meaning  which  the  Chinese  give 
to  the  latter.  In  the  European  code,  the  prominence  given  to 
Fortitude  is  Characteristic  of  a  martial  people,  among  whom,  at 
an  earlier  period,  under  the  name  of  apertj,  it  usurped  the  entire 
realm  of  virtue.  In  the  progress  of  society,  it  was  compelled  to 

*  Though  politeness  is  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  as  expressing 
&  regard  for  propriety  and  order  in  social  intercourse,  in  Chinese  ethics  it 
has  a  wider  and  higher  signification.  It  is  precisely  what  Malebranche 
makes  the  basis  of  his  moral  system  and  denominates  "  the  love  of  univer- 
sal order." 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  141 

yield  the  throne  to  Justice  and  accept  the  place  of  a  vassal,  both 
Greek  and  Latin  moralists  asserting  that  no  degree  of  courage 
which  is  not  exerted  in  a  righteous  cause  is  worthy  of  a  better 
appellation  than  that  of  audacity.  They  erred,  therefore,  in  giv- 
ing it  the  position  of  a  cardinal  virtue,  and  the  Chinese  have  ex- 
hibited more  discrimination  by  placing  it  in  the  retinue  of  Jus- 
tice. They  describe  it  by  two  words,  Chih  and  Yung.  Con- 
nected with  the  former,  and  explaining  its  idea,  we  read  the  pre- 
cept, "  When  you  fail,  seek  help  in  yourself ;  stand  firm  to  your 
post,  and  let  no  vague  desires  draw  you  from  it."  Appended  to 
the  latter  we  have  the  injunction,  "  When  you  see  the  right,  do 
it ;  when  you  know  a  fault,  correct  it.  Neither  yield  to  excess, 
if  rich,  nor  swerve  from  right,  if  poor."  What  a  noble  concep- 
tion of  moral  courage,  of  true  fortitude  ! 

Benevolence  and  good  faith,  which  are  quite  subordinate  in 
the  heathen  systems  of  the  West,  in  that  of  China  are  each  pro- 
moted to  the  leadership  of  a  grand  division.  In  fact,  the  whole 
tone  of  the  Chinese  morals,  as  exhibited  in  the  names  and  order 
of  their  cardinal  virtues,  is  quite  consonant  with  the  spirit  of 
Christianity.  *  Benevolence  leads  the  way  in  prompting  to  posi- 
tive efforts  for  the  good  of  others;  justice  follows,  to  regulate 
its  actions  and  restrain  its  antagonistic  qualities ;  wisdom  sheds 

*  Cicero  thus  argues  that  there  could  be  no  occasion  for  the  exercise  of 
any  virtue  in  a  state  of  perfect  blessedness,  taking  up  the  cardinal  virtues 
seriatim :  "  Si  nobis,  cum  ex  hac  vita  migraremus,  in  beatorum  insulis,  ut 
fabulae  ferunt,  immortale  aevum  degere  liceret,  quid  opus  esset  eloquentia, 
cum  judicia  nulla  fierent  ?  aut  ipsi*  etiam  virtutibus  ?  Nee  enim  fortitudine 
indigeremus,  nullo  proposito  aut  labore  aut  periculo;  necjustitia,  cum  esset 
nihil  quod  appeteretur  alieni ;  nee  temperantia,  quae  regeret  eas  quae  nullae 
essent  libidines  ;  ne  prudentia  quidem  egeremus,  nullo  proposito  delectu  bo- 
norum  et  malorum.  Una  igitur  essemus  beati  cognitione  rerum  et  scientia." 
He  has  failed  to  conceive,  as  Sir  J.  Mackintosh  well  suggests,  that  there 
would  still  be  room  for  the  exercise  of  love — of  benevolence.  The  Chinese, 
educated  to  regard  benevolence  as  the  prime  virtue  of  life,  would  naturally 
give  it  the  first  place  in  his  ideal  of  the  future  state. 


142  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

her  light  over  both ;  good  faith  imparts  the  stability  necessary 
to  success ;  politeness,  or  a  sense  of  propriety,  by  bringing  the 
•whole  conduct  into  harmony  with  the  fitness  of  things,  com- 
pletes the  radiant  circle ;  and  he  whose  character  is  adorned  with  all 
these  qualities  may  be  safely  pronounced  totus  teres  atque  rotundus. 

The  theory  of  moral  sentiments  early  engaged  the  attention 
of  Chinese  philosophers,  and  particularly  the  inquiry  as  to  the 
origin  and  nature  of  our  benevolent  affections.  Some,  like 
Locke  and  Paley,  regarded  them  as  wholly  artificial — the  work 
of  education.  Others,  like  Hobbes  and  Mandeville,  represented 
them  as  spontaneous  and  natural,  but  still  no  more  than  varied 
phases  of  that  one  ubiquitous  Proteus — self-love.  Mencius, 
with  Bishop  Butler,  views  them  as  disinterested  and  original. 
To  establish  this,  he  resorts  to  his  favorite  mode  of  reasoning, 
and  supposes  the  case  of  a  spectator  moved  by  the  misfortune 
of  a  child  falling  into  a  well.  Hobbes  would  have  described  the 
pity  of  the  beholder  as  the  fruit  of  self-love  acting  through  the 
imagination — the  "  fiction  of  future  calamity  to  himself."  Men- 
cius says  his  efforts  to  rescue  the  child  would  be  incited,  not  by 
a  desire  to  secure  the  friendship  of  its  parents  or  the  praise  of 
his  neighbors,  nor  even  to  relieve  himself  from  the  pain  occa- 
sioned by  the  cries  of  the  child,  but  by  a  spontaneous  feeling 
which  pities  distress  and  seeks  to  alleviate  it. 

The  man  who  thus  vindicates  our  nature  from  the  charge  of 
selfishness  in  its  best  affections  sometimes  expatiates  on  their  so- 
cial utility.  He  does  so,  however,  only  to  repress  utilitarianism 
of  a  more  sordid  type.  When  the  Prince  of  Liang  inquired 
what  he  had  brought  to  enrich  his  kingdom,  "Nothing," 
he  replied,  "but  benevolence  and  justice;"  and  he  then  pro- 
ceeded to  show,  with  eloquent  earnestness,  how  the  pursuit  of 
wealth  would  tend  to  anarchy,  while  that  of  virtue  would  insure 
happiness  and  peace.  An  earlier  writer,  Meh-tsze,  *  made  the 

*  See  an  interesting  paper  on  the  writings  of  Meh-tsze,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Ed- 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  143 

principle  of  benevolence  the  root  of  all  the  virtues ;  and  in  ad- 
vocating the  duty  of  equal  and  universal  love,  he  seems  to  have 
anticipated  the  fundamental  maxim  of  Jonathan  Edwards  that 
virtue  consists  in  love  to  being  as  such,  and  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  being.  This  led  him  to  utter  the  noble  sentiment 
that  he  would  "  submit  his  body  t<5  be  crushed  to  atoms  if  by 
so  doing  he  could  benefit  mankind." 

The  doctrine  of  Meh-tsze  is  rejected  by  the  moralists  of  the 
established  school  as  heretical,  on  the  ground  of  its  inconsistency 
with  the  exercise  in  due  degree  of  the  relative  affections,  such  as 
filial  piety,  fraternal  love,  etc.  They  adopted  a  more  cautious 
criterion  of  virtue — that  of  the  moderate  exercise  of  all  the'nat- 
ural  faculties.  Virtus  est  medium  vitiorum  et  utrinque  reduc- 
tum  is  with  them  a  familiar  maxim.  One  of  the  Four  Books, 
the  Chung  Yung,  is  founded  on  it.  But  instead  of  treating  the 
subject  with  the  inductive  accuracy  with  which  it  is  elaborated 
by  Aristotle  in  his  Nicomachean  Ethics,  the  author  kindles  with 
the  idea  of  absolute  perfection,  and  indites  a  sublime  rhapsody 
on  the  character  of  him  who  holds  on  his  way,  undeviating  and 
unimpeded,  between  a  twofold  phalanx  of  opposing  vices. 

Part  IV.  is  the  counterpart  of  the  preceding,  and  is  interest- 
ing mainly  on  account  of  the  use  for  which  it  is  designed.  The 
whole  chart  is  practical,  and  is  intended,  the  author  tells  us,  to 
be  suspended  in  the  chamber  of  the  student  as  a  constant  mon- 
itor. The  terms  in  which  he  states  this  contain  an  allusion  to 
a  sentiment  engraved  by  one  of  the  ancient  emperors  on  his 
wash-basin :  "  Let  my  heart  be  daily  cleansed  and  renewed,  and 
be  kept  clean  and  new  forever."  This  part  of  his  work  has  for 
its  special  object  to  aid  the  reader  in  detecting  the  moral  impu- 
rities that  may  have  attached  themselves  to  his  character,  and 
carrying  forward  a  process  of  daily  and  constant  improvement. 

kins,  in  the  Journal  of  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society 
for  May,  1859. 


144  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

To  some  it  may  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  find  this  exercise  at 
all  in  vogue  in  a  country  where  a  divine  religion  has  not  impart- 
ed the  highest  degree  of  earnestness  in  the  pursuit  of  virtue- 
The  number  who  practise  it  is  not  large;  but  even  in  pagan 
China,  the  thorny  path  of  self-knowledge  exhibits  "  here  and 
there  a  traveller."  - 

Tsang-fu-tsze,  an  eminent  disciple  of  Confucius,  and  the  Xen- 
ophon  of  his  Memorabilia,  thus  describes  his  own  practice :  "  I 
every  day  examine  myself  on  three  points.  In  exeftions  on  be- 
half of  others,  have  I  been  unfaithful?  In  intercourse  with  oth- 
ers, have  I  been  untrue  ?  The  instruction  I  have  heard,  have  I 
made  my  own  ?" 

An  example  so  revered  could  not  remain  without  imitators. 
Whether  any  of  them  has  surpassed  the  model  is  doubtful ;  but 
his  "three  points"  they  have  multiplied  into  the  bristling  array 
displayed  in  the  chart,  which  they  daily  press  in  to  their  bosoms, 
as  some  papal  ascetics  were  wont  to  do  their  jagged  belts. 
Some  of  them,  in  order  to  secure  greater  fidelity  in  this  unpleas- 
ant duty,  are  accustomed  to  perform  it  in  the  family  temple, 
where  they  imagine  their  hearts  laid  bare  to  the  view  of  their 
ancestors,  and  derive  encouragement  from  their  supposed  ap- 
proval. The  practice  is  a  beautiful  one,  but  it  indicates  a  want. 
It  shows  that  human  virtue  is  conscious  of  her  weakness;  and 
in  climbing  the  roughest  steeps  feels  compelled  to  lean  on  the 
arm  of  religion. 

In  a  few  cases  this  impressive  form  of  domestic  piety  may 
prove  efficacious ;  but  the  benefit  is  due  to  a  figment  of  the  im- 
agination similar  to  that  which  Epictetus  recommends  when  he 
suggests  that  the  student  of  virtue  shall  conceive  himself  to  be 
living  in  the  presence  of  Socrates.  If  fancy  is  thus  operative, 
how  much  more  effectual  must  faith  be — that  faith  which  rises 
into  knowledge  and  makes  one  realize  that  he  is  acting  under 
the  eye  of  ever-present  Deity  ! 

It  is  one  of  the  glories  of  Christianity  that  by  diffusing  this 


REMARKS   ON  THE   ETHICAL   PHILOSOPHY   OF  THE   CHINESE.    145 

sentiment  she  has  made  virtue  not  an  occasional  visitor  to  our 
earth,  but  brought  her  down  to  dwell  familiarly  with  men. 
What  otherwise  would  have  been  only  the  severe  discipline  of 
a  few  philosophers  she  has  made  the  daily  habit  of  myriads.* 
How  many  persons  in  how  many  lands  now  close  each  day  of 
life  by  comparing  every  item  of  their  conduct  with  a  far  more  per- 
fect "  chart  for  self-examination"  than  our  author  has  furnished ?f 
Next  to  the  knowledge  of  right  and  wrong  Confucius  placed 
"sincerity  of  purpose"  in  pursuing  the  right  as  an  essential  in 
the  practice  of  virtue ;  but  as  he  expressed  only  the  vaguest  no- 
tions of  a  Supreme  Being,  and  enjoined  for  popular  observance 
no  higher  form  of  religion  than  the  worship  of  the  ancestral 
manes,  a  sense  of  responsibility,  and,  by  consequence,  "  sincerity 
of  purpose,"  are  sadly  deficient  among  his  disciples.  Some  of 
the  more  earnest,  on  meeting  with  a  religion  which  reveals  to 
them  a  heart-searching  God,  a  sin-atoning  Saviour,  a  soul-sancti- 
fying Spirit,  and  an  immortality  of  bliss,  have  joyfully  embraced 
it,  confessing  that  they  find  therein  motives  and  supports  of 
which  their  own  system  is  wholly  destitute. 

GENERAL    INFERENCES. 

On  this  sheet  (the  chart  above  translated)  we  have  a  projec- 
tion of  the  national  mind.  It  indicates  the  high  grade  in  the 
scale  of  civilization  attained  by  the  people  among  whom  it  orig- 
inated, exhibiting  all  the  elements  of  an  elaborate  socialism. 
Political  ethics  are  skilfully  connected  with  private  morals ;  and 
the  virtues  and  vices  are  marshalled  in  a  vast  array,  which  re- 
quired an  advanced  state  of  society  for  their  development. 

*  "  Religion,"  says  Sir  James  Mackintosh,  speaking  of  Plato,"  had  not  then, 
besides  her  own  discoveries,  brought  down  the  most  awful  and  the  most 
beautiful  forms  of  moral  truth  to  the  humblest  station  in  human  society." 

f  There  are  many  evening  hymns  in  which  the  review  of  the  day  is  beau- 
tifully and  touchingly  expressed,  but  in  none  perhaps  better  than  in  that  of 
Gellert  commencing  "  Ein  tag  ist  wieder  hin." 

7 


146  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

The  accuracy  with  which  these  various  traits  of  character  are 
noted  implies  the  same  thing ;  and  the  correctness  of  the  moral 
judgments  here  recorded  infers  something  more  than  culture — 
it  discloses  a  grand  fact  of  our  nature,  that,  whatever  may  be 
thought  of  innate  ideas,  it  contains  inherent  principles  which 
produce  the  same  fruits  in  all  climates. 

These  tables  indicate,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  Chinese  have 
made  less  proficiency  in  the  study  of  mind  than  in  that  of  mor- 
als. This  is  evident  from  some  confusion  (more  observable  in 
the  original  than  in  the  translation)  of  faculties,  sentiments,  and 
actions.  The  system  is,  on  the  whole,  pretty  well  arranged ;  but 
there  are  errors  and  omissions  enough  to  show  that  their  ethics, 
like  their  physics,  are  merely  the  records  of  phenomena  which 
they  observe  ab  extra  without  investigating  their  causes  and  re- 
lations. While  they  expatiate  on  the  virtues,  they  make  but  lit- 
tle inquiry  into  the  nature  of  virtue ;  while  insisting  on  various 
duties,  they  never  discuss  the  ground  of  obligation ;  and  while 
duties  are  copiously  expounded,  not  a  word  is  said  on  the  sub- 
ject of  rights. 

The  combined  influence  of  an  idolatrous  religion  and  a  des- 
potic government,  under  which  there  can  be  no  such  motto  as 
Dieu  et  mon  droit,  may  account  for  this  latter  deficiency.  But 
similar  lacunas  are  traceable  in  so  many  directions  that  we  are 
compelled  to  seek  their  explanation  in  a  subjective  cause — in 
some  peculiarity  of  the  Chinese  mind. 

They  have,  for  instance,  no  system  of  psychology,  and  the 
only  rude  attempt  at  the  formation  of  one  consists  in  an  enu- 
meration of  the  organs  of  perception.  These  they  express  as 
wu-kwan,  the  "  five  senses."  But  what  are  they  ?  The  eyes, 
ears,  nose,  mouth ;  and  not  the  skin  or  nerves,  but  the  heart — 
the  sense  of  touch,  which  alone  possesses  the  power  of  waking 
us  from  the  Brahma  dream  of  a  universe  floating  in  our  own 
brain,  and  convincing  us  of  the  objective  reality  of  an  external 
world,  being  utterly  ignored ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  absurdity  of 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  147 

classing  the  "  heart " — the  intellect  (for  so  they  intend  the  word) 
— with  those  passive  media  of  intelligence. 

This  elementary  effort  dates  from  the  celebrated  Mencius; 
and  perhaps  for  that  very  reason  the  mind  of  the  moderns  has 
not  advanced  beyond  it,  as  one  of  their  pious  emperors  abdicat- 
ed the  throne  rather  than  be  guilty  of  reigning  longer  than  his 
grandfather. 

Another  instance  of  philosophical  classification  equally  an- 
cient, equally  authoritative,  and  equally  absurd,  is  that  of  the 
five  elements.  They  are  given  as  kin,  muh,  shwuy,  ho,  tu — 
i.  e.  metal,  wood,  water,  fire,  and  earth.  Now,  not  to  force  this 
into  a  disparaging  contrast  with  the  results  of  our  recent  science, 
which  recognizes  nothing  as  an  element  but  an  ultimate  form  of 
matter,  we  may  fairly  compare  it  with  the  popular  division  of 
"  four  elements." 

The  principle  of  classification  being  the  enumeration  of  the 
leading  forms  of  inorganic  matter  which  enter  into  the  composi- 
tion of  organic  bodies,  the  Chinese  have  violated  it  by  introduc- 
ing wood  into  the  category;  and  they  evince  an  obtuseness  of 
observation  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  possession  of  philosophic 
talent  in  not  perceiving  the  important  part  which  atmospheric 
air  performs  in  the  formation  of  other  bodies.  The  extent  to 
which  they  adhere  to  the  quintal  enumeration  or  classification 
by  "fives"  illustrates,  in  a  rather  ludicrous  manner,  the  same 
want  of  discrimination.  Thus,  while  in  mind  they  have  the 
five  senses,  and  in  matter  the  five  elements,  in  morals  they  reck- 
on five  virtues,  in  society  five  relations,  in  astronomy  five  plan- 
ets, in  ethnology  five  races,  in  optics  five  colors,  in  music  five 
notes,  in  the  culinary  art  five  tastes;  and,  not  to  extend  the 
catalogue,  they  divide  the  horizon  into  five  quarters. 

These  instances  evince  a  want  of  analytical  power;  and  the 
deficiency  is  still  further  displayed  in  the  absence  of  any  analysis 
of  the  sounds  of  their  language  until  they  were  brought  acquaint- 
ed with  the  alphabetical  Sanscrit;  the  non-existence,  to  the  pres- 


148  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

ent  day,  of  any  inquiry  into  the  forms  of  speech  which  might 
be  called  a  grammar,  or  of  any  investigation  of  the  processes  of 
reasoning  corresponding  with  our  logic ;  and  the  fact  that  while 
they  have  soared  into  the  attenuated  atmosphere  of  ontological 
speculation,  they  have  left  all  the  regions  of  physical  and  ab- 
stract science  almost  as  trackless  as  the  arctic  snows. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  vindicate  the  Chinese  from  the 
charge  of  mental  inferiority  in  the  presence  of  that  immense  so- 
cial and  political  organization  which  has  held  together  so  many 
millions  of  people  for  so  many  thousands  of  years,  and  espe- 
cially of  arts,  now  dropping  their  golden  fruits  into  the  lap  of  our 
own  civilization,  whose  roots  can  be  traced  to  the  soil  of  that  an- 
cient empire.  But  a  strange  defect  must  be  admitted  in  the  na- 
tional mind.  We  think,  however,  that  it  is  more  in  its  develop- 
ment than  in  its  constitution,  and  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
influence  of  education. 

If  we  include  in  that  term  all  the  influences  that  affect  the 
mind,  the  first  place  is  due  to  language ;  and  a  language  whose 
primary  idea  is  the  representation  of  the  objects  of  sense,  and 
which  is  so  imperfect  a  vehicle  of  abstract  thought  that  it  is  in- 
capable of  expressing  by  single  words  such  ideas  as  space,  qual- 
ity, relation,  etc.,  must  have  seriously  obstructed  the  exercise  of 
the  intellect  in  that  direction.  A  servile  reverence  for  antiquity 
which  makes  it  sacrilege  to  alter  the  crude  systems  of  the  an- 
cients increased  the  difficultyj  and  the  government  brought  it 
to  the  last  degree  of  aggravation  by  admitting,  in  the  public-ser- 
vice examinations,  a  very  limited  number  of  authors,  with  their 
expositors,  to  whose  opinions  conformity  is  encouraged  by  hon- 
ors, and  from  whom  dissent  is  punished  by  disgrace. 

These  fetters  can  only  be  stricken  off  by  the  hand  of  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  we  are  not  extravagant  in  predicting  that  a  stupen- 
dous intellectual  revolution  will  attend  its  progress.  Revealing 
an  omnipresent  God  as  Lord  of  the  Conscience,  it  will  add  a  new 
hemisphere  to  the  world  of  morals;  stimulating  inquiry  in  the 


REMARKS  ON  THE  ETHICAL  PHILOSOPHY  OF  THE  CHINESE.  149 

spirit  of  the  precept  "Prove  all  things,  hold  fast  that  which  is 
good,"  it  will  subvert  the  blind  principle  of  deference ;  and  per- 
haps its  grandest  achievement  in  the  work  of  mental  emancipation 
may  be  the  superseding  of  the  ancient  ideographic  language  by 
providing  a  medium  better  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  a  Chris- 
tian civilization.  It  would  only  be  a  repetition  of  historic  tri- 
umphs if  some  of  the  vernacular  dialects,  raised  from  the  depths 
where  they  now  lie  in  neglect,  and  shaped  by  the  forces  which 
heave  them  to  the  surface,  should  be  made,  under  the  influence 
of  Christianity,  to  teem  with  the  rich  productions  of  a  new  lit- 
erature, philosophy,  and  science. 

N.  B. — These  charts  are  here  appended  in  the  original  language 
for  the  benefit  of  students  of  Chinese. 


Vs- 


HIW 


•'&&&( 


•*•  n^xsNV*  '»>m 

<Hf?pK2 


«WAW  K 

^*«ls/l!l? 


164  CHINESE   EDUCATION,  ETC. 


ISIS  AND   OSIRIS,  OR  ORIENTAL  DUALISM  * 

A  PHILOSOPHICAL  theory  is  always  to  be  found  at  the  root  of 
a  religion.  It  is  accordingly  only  by  a  comparative  study  of 
their  religions  that  we  can  hope  to  arrive  at  the  fundamental 
conceptions  of  mankind  as  to  the  system  of  the  universe.  Ram- 
ifying into  an  infinity  of  forms,  these  conceptions  are  capable  of 
being  reduced  to  a  few  simple  elements ;  some  religions  starting 
from  a  triad  of  powers,  others  from  a  duality,  etc.  These  terms 
"do  not,  in  all  cases,  mean  the  same  thing;  indeed,  the  Anal- 
ogy is  often  limited  to  a  mere  numerical  correspondence,  as  we 
shall  see  when  we  come  to  compare  the  dualism  of  China  with 
that  of  Persia.  As  an  introduction  to  the  subject,  I  avail  my- 
self of  an  ancient  treatise  on  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians. 

The  superstitions  of  classical  antiquity  have  been  transmitted 
to  us  through  a  thousand  channels;  but  two  writers  only  have 
given  us  anything  like  a  philosophical  view  of  the  religion  of 
the  ancients.  These  are  Cicero  and  Plutarch.  Deeply  serious 
and  profoundly  erudite,  both  exercised  the  mature  vigor  of  their 
powers  on  the  all-absorbing  question  of  man's  relation  to  the 
supernatural.  The  Roman  has  left  us  the  results  of  his  inquiries 
in  the  Qucestiones  Tusculance,  and  especially  in  his  treatise  De 
Natura  Deorum.  The  Greek,  besides  numerous  other  works, 
has  embodied  his  theology  in  a  disquisition  concerning  Isis  and 
Osiris,  or  the  religion  of  the  Egyptians.  The  former  is  well 
known,  but  the  latter  is  comparatively  rare ;  and  we  accordingly 
propose  to  give  it  a  cursory  review  with  reference  to  its  bearing 

*  From  the  Chinese  Recorder,  September,  1867. 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  155 

on  certain  systems  current  in  Oriental  countries  at  the  present 
day.  The  edition  we  make  use  of  is  that  of  Gustav  Parthey, 
Berlin,  1850.  We  are  not  aware  that  this  treatise  has  ever  ap- 
peared in  an  English  dress. 

Plutarch's  philosophy  is  not  profound.  It  never  essays  the 
sublime  flights  of  Plato  or  the  searching  analysis  of  Aristotle; 
neither  is  it  recommended  by  originality  of  thought  or  grace  of 
diction.  Its  chief  characteristic  is  a  certain  comprehensiveness 
of  view,  based  on  a  wide  induction  of  particulars.  And  in  this 
consists  its  value ;  for  the  reader,  however  he  may  dissent  from 
the  reasoning  of  the  author,  will  not  fail  to  thank  him  for  the 
variety  of  curious  information  which  he  has  collected.  A  Neo- 
platonist  brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Ammonius,  he  learned  from 
his  preceptor  to  apply  that  universal  solvent,  not  unknown  in 
more  modern  times,  which  renders  the  terms  of  all  religious 
creeds  mutually  convertible.  The  secret  of  his  process  is  found 
in  the  one  word  "  allegory ;"  and  in  applying  it  he  always  treats 
with  reverence  the  most  insignificant  and  even  discrepant  details, 
looking  on  them  all  as  cerements  of  mummied  truth.  His  exor- 
dium well  expresses  the  spirit  of  his  undertaking,  and  touches 
in  our  bosoms  a  chord  of  melancholy  sympathy. 

"  O  Clea !"  he  exclaims,  addressing  a  learned  lady  who  was  a 
votary  of  the  Egyptian  goddess — "  O  Clea !  as  it  becomes  those 
who  are  endowed  with  reason  to  look  to  the  gods  for  every 
good,  especially  should  we,  in  entering  on  an  inquiry  concern- 
ing themselves,  seek  to  be  guided  by  them  as  far  as  it  is  possible 
for  the  mind  of  man  to  penetrate.  .  .  .  For  neither  silver  nor 
gold,  nor  thunders  and  lightnings,  but  wisdom  and  knowledge, 
constitute  the  felicity  of  the  Divine  Being.  If  these  attributes 
were  withdrawn,  his  immortal  existence  would  no  longer  be  a 
life,  but  merely  a  sterile  duration.  The  search  for  truth  is 
therefore  a  striving  after  the  divine — a  holier  work  than  any 
ceremonial  purifications  or  cloistered  devotion." 

From  such  a  beginning  we  would  expect  his  track  to  brighten 


156  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

at  every  step ;  but  it  is  painful  to  read  the  conclusion  which  he 
arrives  at  after  a  survey  of  the  whole  field.  The  search  for 
truth  is  not  always  successful.  Briefly  setting  forth  his  own 
system,  he  says  (p.  78),  "The  beginnings  of  all  things  are  not 
to  be  placed,  with  Deraocritus  and  Epicurus,  in  certain  inanimate 
corpuscles ;  nor  are  we  to  suppose,  with  the  Stoics,  that  there  is 
but  one  mind  [\oyoc],  or  providence  [irp&wa],  which  made  all 
things  out  of  primordial  matter  destitute  of  quality  [i.  e.  impart- 
ed to  matter  its  properties],  and  which  now  presides  over  the  af- 
fairs of  the  universe.  For  it  is  impossible  that  there  should  be 
anything  evil  if  God  were  the  cause  of  all,  or  anything  good  if 
God  were  the  cause  of  nothing."  This  dictum,  while  it  shows 
that  Plutarch  was  stumbling  at  that  immemorial  snare  of  philos- 
ophers, the  origin  of  evil,  also  shows  how  far  he  falls  in  grasp  of 
intellect  behind  the  sublime  optimism  of  the  great  founder  of 
his  school.  He  goes  on,  "The  most  ancient  doctrine,  whose 
origin  is  unknown,  in  which  a  faith  firm  and  inextinguishable 
everywhere  prevails,  expressed  not  in  words,  but  in  rite* and  sac- 
rifices, is  that  the  universe  is  not  moved  as  an  automaton,  with- 
out any  mind  or  governor ;  neither  is  there  merely  a  single  Lo- 
gos, who  rules  and  guides  it  as  with  rudder  or  rein.  But  all 
things  proceed  from  a  twofold  origin — from  two  antagonistic 
powers,  of  whom  one  would  lead  in  the  right  way,  but  the  other 
opposes  and  frustrates  his  purposes,  so  that  life  is  a  mingled  cup, 
and  the  world  (at  least  so  much  of  it  as  lies  beneath  the  moon) 
a  mingled  scene  of  good  and  ill.  For  if  nothing  exists  without 
a  cause,  and  good  cannot  be  the  cause  of  evil,  it  follows  that 
both  good  and  evil  must  be  derived  from  independent  sources." 
"  This,"  he  adds,  "  is  the  opinion  of  the  wisest  as  well  as  the 
most  numerous  portion  of  mankind,"  and  he  startles  us  by  the 
assertion  in  another  place  that  it  was  avowed  by  Plato  himself 
towards  the  close  of  his  life.  "  In  the  book  on  Legislation,"  he 
says,  "Plato,  divesting  his  language  of  enigmatical  symbols  and 
calling  things  by  their  right  names,  declares  that  the  world  is 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  157 

moved  not  by  one  soul,  but  perhaps  by  many,  by  two  at  the 
least — one  beneficent,  the  other  of  the  opposite  character." 

This  doctrine  Plutarch  finds  inculcated  in  the  religion  of 
Egypt — a  religion  neither  lucid  nor  profound,  but  one  which  he 
tells  us  was  regarded  with  reverence  by  such  men  as  Solon, 
Thales,  Plato,  and  Pythagoras.  In  reciting  the  myth  by  which 
it  is  veiled,  he  admonishes  his  fair  pupil  that  when  she  hears  of 
the  gods  wandering  from  place  to  place,  and  being  torn  limb 
from  limb,  she  is  not  to  imagine  that  anything  of  the  kind  ever 
occurred ;  for  the  Egyptians  were  wont  to  express  their  ideas  in 
figurative  forms,  and  to  conceal  them  under  shadowy  symbols. 
Having  illustrated  this  by  examples,  he  proceeds  to  relate  the 
legend  of  Isis  and  Osiris. 

Those  beneficent  deities,  united  in  happy  wedlock,  were  as- 
sailed by  the  spite  of  the  malignant  Typhon.  By  a  stratagem, 
this  evil  being  succeeded  in  inducing  Osiris  to  lie  down  in  a 
chest  or  coffin,  when,  nailing  it  fast,  he  committed  it  to  the  wa- 
ters of  the  Nile  to  carry  out  to  sea.  Isis,  in  disconsolate  widow- 
hood, wanders  far  and  wide  in  quest  of  her  husband's  remains. 
Being  received  by  the  King  of  Byblus,  and  employed  as  a  do- 
mestic, she  seeks  to  requite  his  kindness,  while  nursing  an  infant 
prince,  by  subjecting  the  child  to  a  process  of  annealing,  with  a 
view  to  rendering  it  immortal.  The  Queen,  terrified  at  the  fiery 
ordeal,  cries  out  and  breaks  the  spell.  Here,  by  a  happy  acci- 
dent, she  recovers  the  body  of  her  spouse;  but  not  long  after, 
Typhon,  their  implacable  enemy,  finding  her  off  her  guard,  tears 
it  in  pieces,  scattering  the  limbs  in  distant  regions. 

In  this  it  is  easy  to  recognize  the  story  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
pine, which,  however,  in  point  of  poetic  taste,  is  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  Egyptian  original.  It  is  easy,  too,  to  see  how  the 
wild  fancy  of  a  superstitious  and  unlettered  age  might  give  birth 
to  a  thousand  such  fables ;  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  conceive  how 
any  truth,  physical  or  moral,  can  be  grafted  on  such  a  stock. 
Plutarch,  however,  discovers  in  it  a  world  of  meaning,  and  recites 


158  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

its  minutest  details — not  a  few  savoring  of  grossness  and  ob- 
scenity— because  the  Egyptian  hierophants  had  thought  fit  to 
make  it  the  vehicle  of  their  mystic  lore.  It  is  edifying  to  ob- 
serve how  he  labors  to  extract  from  it  a  rational  theory  of  the 
universe. 

Setting  out  with  two  principles,  he  suddenly  finds  himself  en- 
cumbered with  three,  which  are  required  to  correspond  with  the 
three  leading  characters  in  the  myth — not  to  speak  of  many  oth- 
ers which  have  a  subordinate  place  in  the  legend,  and  each  of 
which,  in  the  exposition,  must  be  represented  by  some  force, 
power,  or  principle.  Instead  of  representing  the  simple  antithe- 
sis of  good  and  evil,  he  makes  Typhon  stand  alone  (though  the 
story  gives  him  a  wife)  for  the  energy  of  evil ;  and  subdivides 
the  beneficent  power  into  two  parts,  assigning  a  portion  of  its 
functions  to  each  of  the  favorite  deities.  But  before  he  reaches 
this  result,  he  flounders  through  a  quicksand  of  conflicting  in- 
terpretations, repudiating  some  and  adopting  others  with  as  much 
discrimination  as  the  Roman  pantheon  exercised  in  admitting  the 
gods  of  the  Gentiles.  In  following  his  uncertain  steps,  we  are 
compelled  to  condense  many  pages  into  few. 

Some,  he  says,  make  this  myth  or  saga  a  traditionary  history 
of  the  ancient  kings ;  and  some  make  it  a  personification  of  the 
Nile  fructifying  the  soil  of  Egypt,  and  of  the  sea  in  turn  swal- 
lowing up  the  river.  But  the  wiser  priests  do  not  limit  the  in- 
terpretation so  narrowly.  According  to  them,  Osiris  is  not  mere- 
ly the  Nile,  but  the  principle  of  moisture  (water),  and  Typhon 
the  antagonistic  principle  of  drought  or  fire.  Others  look  on 
Typhon  as  the  sun,  and  on  Osiris  as  the  moon ;  and  others  still 
understand  by  Typhon  the  shadow  of  the  earth  which  envelops 
the  moon  during  an  eclipse.  The  Egyptians  also  exhibit  Osiris 
in  human  form,  clothed  with  a  robe  of  flame,  and  representing 
the  sun  as  an  embodiment  of  the  beneficent  power.  Some  plain- 
ly call  the  sun  Osiris,  and  maintain  that  Isis  was  no  other  than 
the  moon,  hence  her  statue  is  crowned  with  horns.  They  rep- 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  159 

resent  Osiris  by  an  eye  and  a  sceptre,  and  Typhon  by  a  hip- 
popotamus. Manetho  makes  Typhon  iron,  and  Horns  loadstone 
— Horns,  the  son,  taking  the  place  of  the  dead  Osiris,  and  his 
transforming  influence  over  the  hearts  of  men  being  compared 
to  that  of  a  magnet,  which  imparts  its  own  properties  to  the 
metal  which  it  attracts. 

After  comparing  these  deities  to  the  cabalistic  numbers  of 
the  Pythagoreans,  and  to  the  sides  of  a  triangle,  Plutarch  offers 
an  explanation  of  his  own.  In  the  human  soul,  Osiris  is  the 
understanding,  and  Typhon  the  passions.  In  nature,  Osiris  is 
the  masculine  energy,  and  Isis  the  female.  Again,  Osiris  is  the 
beginning,  Isis  the  continuation,  and  Horus,  their  child,  the  com- 
pletion. In  a  word,  disorder  is  Typhon,  while  order  and  beauty 
are  the  work  of  Isis — the  image  of  the  unseen  Osiris. 

From  this  view,  it  is  obvious  that  not  much  can  be  made  of 
the  myth — either  by  the  "  best-instructed  interpreters,"  whose 
expositions  are  directly  opposed  to  each  other,  or  by  Plutarch 
himself,  whose  own  opinions  are  self-contradictory.  Indeed,  the 
learned  author  betrays  his  incapacity  for  the  work  he  has  un- 
dertaken, tantas  componere  lites,  by  his  performances  in  the  way 
of  etymology. 

He  says,  e.g.,  "  Isis  is  not  a  barbarian  word,  but  common  alike 
to  the  Greek  and  Egyptian  languages.  It  is  derived  at  once 
from  two  words — tTriorjfytj/,  understanding,  and  KtVijerie,  motion ; 
just  as  &de  comes  from  two  words — Searov,  the  visible  [from 
being  invisible?],  and  3eW,  hastening,  the  swift."  The  deriva- 
tion, too,  of  Osiris  from  the  two  Greek  words  oaiog  and  tepoc, 
while  with  equal  confidence  he  points  out  an  Egyptian  origin,  is 
another  specimen  which  we  select  from  many  of  that  kind  of 
reasoning.  It  is  not  surprising  that  one  who  carries  dualism 
into  etymology  after  this  fashion  should  be  able  to  find  two  co- 
ordinate powers  at  the  root  of  all  things ! 

Dualism,  we  have  seen,  was  the  goal  at  which  Plutarch  aimed 
in  his  laborious  investigation  of  the  Egyptian  mysteries.  The 


160  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

veneration  in  which  Egypt  was  held,  as  in  some  sense  the  father- 
land of  Grecian  culture — its  high  antiquity,  and,  above  all,  the 
currency  which  the  religions  of  Egypt  had  obtained  in  the 
Roman  Empire,  were  circumstances  conspiring  to  stimulate  re- 
search and  give  importance  to  doctrines  supported  by  Egyp- 
tian testimony.  But  Plutarch  was  not  content  to  rest  his 
doctrine  on  the  sole  authority  of  the  Egyptians.  He  found  ev- 
idence of  its  prevalence  in  countries  far  remote  from  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  and  boldly  asserts  that  dualism  is  at  once  the  most 
ancient  and  the  most  widely  disseminated  of  all  creeds.  This 
assertion  he  endeavors  to  make  good  by  citing  analogies  in  the 
religious  philosophy  of  various  nations.  He  first  appeals  to  the 
Persians. 

Zoroaster,  he  says,  calls  the  beneficent  deity  Oromasdes,  and 
the  malignant  one  Ahrimanius.  The  former  is  symbolized  by 
light,  the  latter  by  darkness.  They  are  engaged  in  perpetual 
conflict;  yet  a  time  is  looked  for  when  Ahrimanius  shall  be 
overcome,  and  all  mankind  lead  a  life  of  happiness,  dwelling  to- 
gether in  harmony,  and  speaking  one  language.  At  that  time 
they  will  no  longer  stand  in  need  of  food,  and  their  bodies  no 
longer  cast  a  shadow. 

The  Chaldeans  held  the  same  doctrine,  as  Plutarch  infers  from 
the  fact  of  their  regarding  the  planets  as  deities,  and  distin- 
guishing them  into  three  classes — beneficent,  malignant,  and  in- 
different. 

Among  the  Greeks,  he  says,  the  same  belief  is  everywhere  ap- 
parent— good  being  referred  to  the  domain  of  Olympian  Jove, 
and  evil  to  that  of  Hades ;  while  Harmonia  is  represented  as  the 
offspring  of  Mars  and  Venus,  the  happy  result  from  a  conflict  of 
opposing  principles. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  follow  our  author  as  he  traces  the  dualis- 
tic  idea  in  its  various  manifestations  in  the  countries  referred 
to ;  indeed,  its  existence  there  might  have  been  presumed,  inde- 
pendent of  demonstration.  With  the  advantage  of  a  more  ex- 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  161 

tended  view  of  the  world's  history,  and  a  wider  acquaintance 
•with  human  beliefs,  we  are  able  to  add  considerably  to  his  cata- 
logue of  evidences,  and  to  show  that,  in  a  vague  sense,  he  is  not 
far  wrong  in  predicating  universality  for  a  certain  kind  of  dual- 
ism ;  though  we  shall  not  admit  so  readily  the  other  claim  which 
he  makes  on  its  behalf — that  of  primogeniture  among  the  relig- 
ious tenets  of  the  human  race.  We  recognize  it  in  the  worship 
of  Baal  and  Astarte  among  the  nations  adjacent  to  Palestine. 
We  discover  it  among  the  wild  superstitions  of  Northern  Eu- 
rope, and  may  trace  it  even  in  the  crude  theology  of  the  aborig- 
inal Americans.  It  is  more  interesting,  however,  to  note  the 
form  it  takes  among  those  great  nations  of  Southern  and  East- 
ern Asia  which  stand  forth  as  living  monuments  of  antiquity — 
the  sole  survivors  of  an  extinct  world. 

In  theory  the  Hindoos  acknowledge  a  triad,  but  practically 
they  divide  their  devotions  between  two  antagonistic  deities. 
Forgetting  their  slumbering  Brahma,  whose  work  of  creation  is 
finished,  and  who  no  longer  interferes  with  the  course  of  nature, 
they  are  only  anxious  to  engage  the  protection  of  Vishnu,  the 
Preserver,  or  to  appease  the  wrath  of  Siva,  the  Destroyer.  Nor 
is  it  unworthy  of  remark  that  as  the  phallos  of  Osiris  was  wor- 
shipped in  Egypt,  so  the  lingam  of  Siva  is  reverenced  in  India 
as  the  symbol  of  reproductive  energy,  which  only  finds  scope  for 
its  exercise  in  consequence  of  decay  and  death. 

In  China  dualism  appears  under  a  peculiar  form.  There  are 
not  here  two  deities  competing  for  the  popular  favor;  but  we 
find  here  two  classes,  called  jfy  and  JjJ,  answering  very  nearly  to 
a  distinction  current  among  the  Greeks,  who,  as  Plutarch  tells 
us,  designated  the  good  deities  by  $e6s,  and  the  evil  ones  by 
laip.t>)v.  They  have,  I  admit,  other  distinctions  than  those  of 
moral  qualities;  but  these  are  uppermost  in  the  popular  idea. 
As  we  rise,  however,  from  the  credulity  of  vulgar  superstition  to 
the  subtle  region  of  philosophic  speculation,  these  divinities  be- 
come divested  of  their  personality  and  fade  into  mere  forces — 


162  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

manifestations  of  the  Yin,  ^,  and  the  Yang,  |^.  In  these  last 
terms  we  have  the  true  basis  of  Chinese  dualism.  As  they  are 
used  to  express  the  distinctions  of  sex,  they  are  often  called  the 
male  and  female  principles;  and  it  is  undeniable  that  in  the 
mind  of  a  native  a  sexual  idea  is  attached  to  each,  while  the  two 
together  are  looked  upon  as  containing  the  seminal  elements  of 
the  universe. 

Evidence,  however,  is  not  wanting  to  show  that  this  concep- 
tion had  no  place  in  the  minds  of  those  who  originated  the  Chi- 
nese language.  The  characters  speak  for  themselves,  and  fur- 
nish us  with  a  perfect  mirror  of  the  original  idea — signifying 
respectively  "  the  luminous "  and  "  the  dark."  In  this  sense 
they  are  applied  to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  latter  being  called 
T'ai  Yin — not  as  dark  in  itself,  but  as  presiding  over  the  realm 
of  darkness.  Light  was  recognized  as  an  active  agent  in  the 
production  of  physical  changes ;  and  darkness,  not  less  impor- 
tant to  the  well-being  of  the  material  world,  was  not  discovered 
to  be  a  mere  negation,  but  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  co-ordi- 
nate principle.  The  two  together  are  made  the  foundation  of 
a  cosmogony  which  in  the  function  assigned  to  light  bears  some 
analogy  to  our  Scripture  account  of  the  order  of  creation ;  and 
the  resemblance  is  still  further  increased  by  a  faint  conception 
of  something  anterior  to  Yang,  and  even  prior  to  chaos.  The 
common  statement  given  in  Chinese  histories*  may  be  freely 

*  Chinese  histories,  like  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York,  almost 
always  begin  with  the  creation  of  the  world.  Speculative  writers  following 
Chow-tsze  give  this  cosmogony  a  slight  variation  by  omitting  the  word 
"  produced."  "  First  the  indefinite  and  then  the  definite  [or  conditioned]. 
It  moved,  and  there  was  light  [or  Yang]  ;  it  rested,  and  there  was  darkness 
[or  Fin]."  They  make  it  a  mere  sequence,  and  deny  causation.  Chu-fu- 
tsze  says  the  "first  five  terms  of  the  series  are  so  complete  that  nothing 
can  be  added  to  them  or  taken  from  them."  It  is  curious  to  see  light  con- 
nected with  motion.  Did  the  ancient  Chinese  anticipate  the  undulatory  the- 
ory, and  the  whole  modern  doctrine  of  thermo-dynamics  ?  The  physical 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  163 

rendered  in  the  following  form  :  "  The  indefinite,  or  $$  |§ , 
produced  the  finite  or  definite,  "fa  %£,  the  elements  of  nature  as 
yet  in  a  chaotic  state.  This  chaos  evolved  the  principle  of  Yang, 
or  light.  The  Yang  produced  Yin,  i.  e.  darkness  followed  in 
the  way  of  alternation;  and  the  Yin  and  the  Yang  together 
produced  all  things  from  the  alternations  of  day  and  night,  and 
the  succession  of  the  seasons."  Commencing  with  this  simple 
idea,  the  Yin  and  the  Yang  have  been  gradually  metamorphosed 
into  mysterious  entities,  the  foundation  of  a  universal  sexual  sys- 
tem, and  incessantly  active  in  every  department  of  nature — at 
once  the  fountain  of  the  deepest  philosophy  and  the  aliment  of 
the  grossest  superstition.* 

A  comparison  of  the  various  phases  under  which  the  dualistic 
idea  manifests  itself  in  different  countries  would,  we  believe,  tend 
to  elucidate  some  obscure  points  in  the  religious  history  of  the 
human  race. 

It  is  customary  with  a  certain  school  to  represent  religion  as 
altogether  the  fruit  of  an  intellectual  process.  It  had  its  birth, 
say  they,  in  ignorance,  is  modified  by  every  stage  in  the  progress 
of  knowledge,  and  expires  when  the  light  of  philosophy  reaches 

theory  which  refers  everything  to  the  Yin  and  Yang  originates  in. the  Yih- 
king,  the  oldest  of  their  sacred  books.  If  tai-ki  is  matter,  then  they  un- 
doubtedly anticipated  the  dual  bases  of  modern  physics,  matter  and  motion. 
*  The  orthodox  view  of  kwe  and  shen  is  to  be  found  in  a  passage  of  the 
Chung-yung.  "  The  Master  said  vast  are  the  virtues  of  the  kwe-shen  /"  On 
this  dictum  of  Confucius,  Ch'eng-tsze  remarks,  "  The  kwe-shen  are  the  forces 
of  nature."  Chang-tsze  calls  them  "  properties  of  the  dual  principle  Yin- 
yang."  Chu-fu-tsze  adds,  "Kwe  are  the  spirits  of  the  Yin,  and  shen  the 
spirits  of  the  Yang  " — the  term  "  spirits  "  (ling)  being  so  vague  as  to  make 
room  at  once  for  the  negations  of  atheism,  and  for  all  the  divinities  of  poly- 
theism. In  a  discourse  quoted  in  the  Sing-li  ta-tsuen,  Chu-fu-tsze  tries  to 
vindicate  his  masters,  the  two  Ch'engs,  from  the  suspicion  of  denying  the 
existence  of  spiritual  beings,  i.  e.  of  gods.  "  They  by  no  means  intended," 
he  says,  "  to  assert  that  there  are  no  such  things  as  spirits,  but  that  there 
are  none  such  as  the  vulgar  believe  in." 


164  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

its  noonday.  The  fetich  gives  place  to  a  personification  of  the 
powers  of  nature,  and  this  poetic  pantheon  is  in  turn  superseded 
by  the  high  idea  of  unity  in  nature,  expressed  by  monotheism. 

This  theory  has  the  merit  of  verisimilitude.  It  indicates  what 
might  be  the  process  if  man  were  left  to  make  his  own  religion  ; 
but  it  has  the  misfortune  to  be  at  variance  with  facts.  A  wide 
survey  of  the  history  of  civilized  nations  (and  the  history  of 
others  is  beyond  reach)  shows  that  the  actual  process  undergone 
by  the  human  mind  in  its  religious  development  is  precisely  op- 
posite to  that  which  this  theory  supposes ;  in  a  word,  that  man 
was  not  left  to  construct  his  own  creed,  but  that  his  blundering 
logic  has  always  been  active  in  its  attempts  to  corrupt  and  ob- 
scure a  divine  original.  The  connection  subsisting  between  the 
religious  systems  of  ancient  and  distant  countries  presents  many 
a  problem  difficult  of  solution.  Indeed,  their  mythologies  and 
religious  rites  are  generally  so  distinct  as  to  admit  the  hypothe- 
sis of  an  independent  origin ;  but  the  simplicity  of  their  earliest 
beliefs  exhibits  an  unmistakable  resemblance  suggestive  of  a 
common  source. 

China,  India,  Egypt,  and  Greece  all  agree  in  the  monotheistic 
type  of  their  early  religion.  The  Orphic  hymns,  long  before  the 
advent  of  the  popular  divinities,  celebrated  the  Pantheos,  the 
Universal  God.  The  odes  compiled  by  Confucius  testify  to  the 
early  worship  of  Shangte,  the  Supreme  Ruler.  The  Vedas  speak 
of  "  one  unknown  true  Being,  all-present,  all-powerful ;  the  Crea- 
tor, Preserver,  and  Destroyer  of  the  universe."  And  in  Egypt, 
as  late  as  the  time  of  Plutarch,  there  were  still  vestiges  of  a 
monotheistic  worship.  "  The  other  Egyptians,"  he  says,  "  all 
made  offerings  at  the  tombs  of  the  sacred  beasts ;  but  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Thebaid  stood  alone  in  making  no  such  offer- 
ings, not  regarding  as  a  god  anything  that  can  die,  and  acknowl- 
edging no  god  but  one  whom  they  call  Kneph,  who  had  no  birth, 
and  can  have  no  death."  Abraham,  in  his  wanderings,  found  the 
God  of  his  fathers  known  and  honored  in  Salem,  in  Gerar,  and 


ISIS    AND    OSIRIS,  OR    ORIENTAL    DUALISM.  165 

in  Memphis ;  while  at  a  later  day,  Jethro  in  Midian,  and  Balaam 
in  Mesopotamia,  were  witnesses  that  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah 
was  not  yet  extinct  in  those  countries.  The  first  step  in  the 
corruption  of  this  great  traditional  truth  was  probably  the  sub- 
stitution of  two  co-ordinate  powers  instead  of  the  original  ONE.* 
These  were  not  always  conceived  from  the  same  point  of  view ; 
but  the  human  mind,  longing  for  something  like  an  explanation 
of  the  mysteries  of  nature,  generally  seized  on  two  leading  forces 
or  principles,  and  deified  them  as  the  foundation  of  a  crude  the- 
ory of  the  universe.  The  Persians,  struck  with  the  existence  of 
moral  disorder,  explained  it  by  the  conflict  of  Oromasdes  and 
Ahrimanius.  The  Hindoos,  impressed  by  the  vicissitudes  of  our 
mortal  state,  personified  their  ideas  in  a  Preserver  and  a  Destroy- 
er ;  and  the  Chinese,  attracted  by  the  most  striking  of  all  phys- 
ical phenomena,  pitched  on  light  and  darkness  as  the  basis  of  a 
physical  theory. 

*  A  species  of  dualism  may  be  discovered  in  the  sentiments,  if  not  the 
doctrines,  of  the  Christian  world.  Indeed,  few  persons  are  aware  to  what 
extent  Christianity  has  been  affected  by  the  dualism  of  Persia;  for  the 
truths  of  revelation,  distilling  like  rain-drops  pure  from  heaven,  take  their 
color  from  the  channels  through  which  they  pass.  It  is  thus  that  Satan 
comes  to  appear  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  kind  of  rival  deity,  a  personi- 
fication of  the  power  of  evil ;  and  all  Christendom,  with  but  few  exceptions, 
has  taken  the  personification  for  a  person  and  assigned  to  Satan  the  divine 
attributes  of  omnipresence  and  omniscience,  if  no  others.  Now  to  believe 
that  Satan  is  forever  whispering  at  the  ear  of  every  mortal  of  the  many 
millions  born  into  this  world,  as  he  was  at  the  ear  of  Eve ;  and  that  he  lit- 
erally marshals  his  armies  for  battle  against  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  is  to  mis- 
take the  language  of  poetry  for  that  of  philosophy.  It  deepens  the  gloom 
of  a  world  which  is  already  dark  enough,  and  weakens  the  moral  sense  by 
detracting  from  the  feeling  of  responsibility.  It  places  the  soul  on  its  guard 
rather  against  a  person  than  a  thing — against  Satan  instead  of  sin.  One 
may  reject  this  relic  of  magianism  without  denying  the  existence  of  evil 
spirits  any  more  than  he  does  that  of  good  ones.  On  this  subject  see  Bush- 
nell's  Nature  and  the  Supernatural ;  see  also  the  Epistle  of  St.  James, 
i.  14. 


166  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

Among  all  the  systems  that  have  passed  in  review,  there  seems 
to  be  no  family-tie  or  well-established  relationship.  In  fact,  the 
analogies  subsisting  between  them  appear  to  reduce  themselves 
to  the  two  ideas  of  duality  and  antithesis.  A  closer  connection, 
at  first  view,  seems  to  exist  between  the  Chinese  and  Persian  sys- 
tems ;  but  their  points  of  resemblance  are  accidental,  and  their 
differences  essential.  They  agree  in  taking  light  and  darkness 
for  symbols;  but  the  Persian  makes  them  symbols  of  a  moral 
idea,  the  Chinese  of  physical  agents.  The  former  regards  them 
as  persons;  the  latter  never  ascribes  to  them  any  attribute  of 
personal  existence,  but  assigns  them  different  values  under  differ- 
ent circumstances,  as  the  x  and  y  of  an  indeterminate  problem — 
making  them  at  one  time  mere  terms  of  distinction,  at  another 
the  elements  of  the  sexual  system,  and  again  the  active  and  pas- 
sive agencies  that  pervade  all  nature. 

We  are  safe  in  concluding  that  these  several  systems  sprang 
up  independently  in  each  nation,  as  the  fruit  of  their  earliest  ef- 
forts in  the  way  of  speculative  thought.  But  how  little  that 
speculative  thought  was  able  to  accomplish  for  the  religious  en- 
lightenment of  mankind,  we  have  melancholy  evidence  in  the 
fact  that  each  of  these  dual  systems,  at  a  very  early  period,  be- 
gan to  put  forth  the  many  branches  of  the  polytheistic  upas. 
In  Persia,  Plutarch  says,  each  of  the  principal  deities  gave  birth 
to  half  a  dozen  gods,  who  took  part  in  their  conflict.  In  Egypt 
and  India,  a  numerous  family  of  deities  connect  themselves  with 
the  leading  characters ;  and  in  China  the  two  classes  of  Shin  and 
Kwei  take  their  rise  from  Yin  and  Yang.  Thus,  superstition 
takes  up  a  philosophic  idea,  and  perverts  it  to  her  own  purposes ; 
and  human  philosophy,  without  light  from  on  high,  is  unable  to 
oppose  any  barrier  beyond  the  erection  of  an  altar  to  the  "  un- 
known God,"  inscribed  with  some  such  mournful  confession  as 
that  which  Plutarch  gives  us  from  a  temple  of  Isis — "  I  am  all 
that  is,  or  was,  or  shall  be ;  and  my  veil  no  mortal  hand  has  ever 
withdrawn." 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  167 


ALCHEMY  IN  CHINA.* 

"  The  search  itself  rewards  the  pains ; 

So  though  the  chymist  his  great  secret  miss, 

For  neither  it  in  art  nor  nature  is, 
Yet  things  well  worth  his  toil  he  gains, 
And  does  his  charge  and  labor  pay, 
With  good  unsought  experiments  by  the  way." — COWLEY. 

ONE  in  their  etymological  origin,  the  words  Alchemy  and 
Chemistry  describe  different  stages  in  the  progress  of  the  same 
science.  The  former  represents  it  in  its  infancy,  nursed  on  the 
bosom  of  superstition;  its  field  of  vision  limited  to  special  ob- 
jects, and  vainly  striving  to  accomplish  the  impossible.  The 
latter  presents  it  in  its  maturity,  when,  emancipated  from  puerile 
fancies,  it  claims  the  realm  of  nature  for  its  domain,  and  the 
laws  of  matter  as  its  proper  study. 

In  its  earlier  stage  it  acknowledged  no  other  aim  than  the 
pursuit  of  the  philosopher's  stone  and  the  elixir  of  life.  In  its 
more  advanced  state  it  renounces  them  both,  yet  it  secures  sub- 
stantial advantages  of  scarcely  inferior  magnitude,  alleviating 
disease  and  prolonging  life  by  the  improvements  it  has  intro- 
duced into  the  practice  of  medicine;  while  by  the  mastery  it 
gives  us  over  the  elements  of  nature  it  surpasses  the  most  san- 
guine expectations  of  its  early  votaries.f 

*  Read  before  the  American  Oriental  Society,  October,  1868  ;  revised  and 
published  in  the  China  Review,  January,  1879. 

f  The  eminent  chemist  Dr.  J.  W.  Draper,  of  New  York,  in  a  recent  lect- 
ure on  evolution,  gives  ancient  alchemists  the  credit  of  being  the  first  to 
seize  the  grand  idea  of  evolution  in  its  widest  extent,  as  "  a  progress  from 
the  imperfect  to  the  more  perfect,  including  lifeless  as  well  as  living  nature, 


168  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Those  early  votaries,  whether  they  lived  and  labored  in  the 
West  or  East,  should  not  be  forgotten.  They  were  the  intrepid 
divers  who  explored  the  bottom  of  the  stream,  and  laid  the 
foundation  for  those  magnificent  arches  on  which  modern  sci- 
ence has  erected  her  easy  thoroughfare.  Like  coral  insects, 
"  building  better  than  they  knew,"  they  toiled  upward  in  the 
midst  of  darkness,  guided  only  by  a  faint  glimmer  of  the  light, 
but  without  any  conception  of  the  extent  and  richness  of  the 
new  world  of  knowledge  that  was  destined  to  spring  from  their 
ill-directed  labors.  Heirs  of  the  world's  experience,  and  them- 
selves daring  experimenters,  we  need  not  be  surprised  to  find 
them  in  possession  of  a  large  mass  of  empirical  information.* 

The  old  Arabian  Geber,  as  early  as  the  eighth  century,  was 
acquainted  with  the  preparation  of  sulphuric  acid  and  aqua  re- 
gia,f  and  gave  an  elaborate  description  of  the  more  useful 
metals. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  Albertus  Magnus  understood  the  cu- 
pellation  of  gold  and  silver,  and  their  purification  by  means  of 
lead,  as  also  the  preparation  of  caustic  potassa,  ceruse,  and  minium. 

in  an  unceasing  progression  in  which  all  things  take  part  towards  a  higher 
and  nobler  state."  "  In  this  slow  development,"  he  adds,  "  nature  has  no 
need  to  hasten — she  has  eternity  to  work  in ;  it  is  for  us  to  ascertain  the 
favoring  conditions,  and,  by  imitating  or  increasing  them,  to  accelerate  the 
work."  These  views  are  prominent  in  the  writings  of  all  the  leading  alche- 
mists of  China. 

*  Cowley  expresses  this  idea  in  the  verses  prefixed  to  this  essay,  which, 
it  must  be  confessed,  contain  more  truth  than  poetry.  Humboldt  (Cosmos, 
vol.  ii.)  speaks  of  Albertus.  Magnus  as  "  an  independent  observer  in  the  do- 
main of  analytical  chemistry ;"  and  adds,  "  It  is  true  that  his  hopes  were  di- 
rected to  the  transmutation  of  metals,  but  in  his  attempts  to  fulfil  this  ob- 
ject he  not  only  improved  the  practical  manipulation  of  ores,  but  also  en- 
larged the  insight  of  men  into  the  general  mode  of  action  of  the  chemical 
forces  of  nature." 

f  "  Chemistry,"  says  A.  von  Humboldt,  "  first  begins  when  men  have 
learned  to  employ  mineral  acids  and  powerful  solvents." 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  169 

In  the  thirteenth,  Roger  Bacon  described  with  accuracy  the 
properties  of  saltpetre,  giving  the  recipe  for  gunpowder,  and 
approaching  very  nearly  to  the  explanation  of  the  functions  of 
air  in  combustion. 

In  the  same  century,  Raymond  Lully  described  the  process  of 
obtaining  the  essential  oils ;  and,  a  little  later,  Basil  Valentine  ob- 
tained copper  from  blue  vitriol  by  the  use  of  iron ;  and  discov- 
ered antimony,  sulphuric  ether,  and  fulminating  gold.  Isaac  de 
Hollandais  fabricated  gems  and  described  the  process.  Brandt, 
while  analyzing  a  human  body  in  quest  of  the  philosopher's 
stone,  stumbled  on  the  discovery  of  phosphorus. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  Paracelsus  did  much 
to  overthrow  the  inert  methods  of  the  Galenists,  and  gained  a 
great  and  well-deserved  reputation  by  introducing  the  use  of 
mineral  medicines,  i.  e.  of  chemical  compounds.*  This  last-named 
individual,  though  among  its  more  modern  professors,  may  be 
taken  as  the  very  best  type  of  the  so-called  science  of  alchemy, 
whether  in  its  wisdom  or  its  folly,  in  the  absurdity  of  its  preten- 
sions or  in  the  solid  value  of  its  actual  achievements.  His  name, 
Philippus  Aureolus  Theophrastus  Bombastes  Paracelsus  von 
Hohenheim,  is  synonymous  with  charlatan ;  and  his  fate  sadly 
illustrates  the  history  of  his  profession,  which  one  of  his  fellow- 
laborers  describes  as  "  beginning  in  deceit,  progressing  with  toil, 
and  ending  in  beggary."  His  life  was  terminated,  like  those  of 
so  many  professed  adepts,  by  imbibing  a  draught  of  his  own 
elixir.f  Nor  was  Paracelsus  the  last  victim  of  this  bewitching 

*  "  With  the  rise  of  the  Spagyrists  and  Paracelsus,  who  taught  that  the 
true  use  of  chemistry  is  not  to  make  gold,  but  medicines,  we  seem  to  per- 
ceive the  first  attempt  at  a  rational  pursuit  of  the  study "  (review  of  ar- 
ticle "  Chemistry  "  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  ;  Nature,  January,  1877). 

t  Of  martyrs  of  science  of  this  description,  no  country  can  show  a  longer 
catalogue  than  China.  It  may  be  found  in  extensn  in  native  polemics  against 
the  Tauist  religion,  or  scattered  through  the  pages  of  the  national  histories. 
It  will  be  sufficient  here  to  refer  to  the  Emperors  Mutsung  and  Wutsung, 

8 


170  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

delusion.  In  1784,  Dr.  Price,  an  English  physician,  after  having 
made  gold  in  the  presence  of  several  persons,  and  presented  some 
of  the  precious  product  to  George  III.,  on  being  examined  by  a 
scientific  commission,  committed  suicide  to  escape  the  shame  of 
exposure. 

In  the  last  xjentury,  Dr.  Semler,  a  well-known  theologian  of 
Germany,  also  tried  the  fascinating  experiment.  A  trusty  ser- 
vant, to  save  him  from  disappointment,  stealthily  dropped  a  lit- 
tle gold-leaf  into  his  wonder-working  mixture,  and  the  professor 
was,  of  course,  successful.  When  the  experiment  was  repeated, 
the  same  servant  or  some  member  of  his  family,  to  save  expense, 
substituted  tambac  for  gold-leaf.  The  result  was  an  ignomini- 
ous failure ;  and  but  for  conscience,  fortified  by  religious  princi- 
ple, together  with  the  fact  that  he  was  more  of  a  dupe  than  a 
deceiver,  Semler,  too,  would  have  hanged  or  poisoned  himself  as 
a  refuge  from  disgrace.  To  these  cases,  found  in  most  of  the 
current  books,*  may  be  added  the  name  of  Dr.  Barnard,  "  the 
diamond-maker  of  Sacramento,"  who,  with  his  feet  on  the  au- 
riferous dust  of  California,  sacrificed  his  life  a  few  years  ago  in 
the  vain  attempt  to  manufacture  something  more  precious  than 
gold.  Charging  a  hollow  sphere  with  the  costly  ingredients, 
which,  on  the  application  of  fire,  were  to  crystallize  into  dia- 
monds, he  was  blown  into  the  air  by  a  premature  explosion,  and 
died  without  revealing  the  secret  of  which  he  believed  himself 
to  be  the  sole  depositary.f  This  suggests  the  possibility  that 

of  the  Tang  dynasty,  both  of  whom  are  said  to  have  shortened  their  lives  by 
drinking  a  pretended  elixir  of  immortality. 

*  Of  these  one  of  the  most  entertaining  and  instructive  is  L'Alchimw  et 
les  Alchimistes,  by  Louis  Figuier. 

t  His  melancholy  history  was  given  at  length  under  the  title  of  "  The  Dia- 
mond-maker of  Sacramento,"  some  years  ago,  in  the  Overland  Monthly,  a 
spirited  magazine  of  San  Francisco,  successively  edited  by  the  poet  Bret 
Harte,  and  the  Hon.  B.  P.  Avery,  late  U.  S.  Minister  at  Peking.  Against  the 
possibility  of  procuring  by  artificial  means  transparent  crystals  of  pure  car- 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  171 

the  race  of  alchemists  may  not  yet  be  altogether  extinct,  even 
among  us.  In  Westphalia,  an  association  of  alchemists  existed 
under  the  name  of  Societas  Hermetica  as  late  as  the  year  1819; 
and  in  Canada  the  papers  tell  us  of  a  man  who  recently  (1877) 
committed  suicide  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  testing  the  virtues 
of  a  restorative  elixir  which  he  professed  to  have  invented.* 

In  China,  the  hermetic  art  still  flourishes  in  full  vigor.  The 
Abbe  Hue,  in  his  History  of  Christianity  in  China,  relates  an 
amusing  incident  illustrating  the  ardor  with  which  these  perse- 
vering Orientals  still  continue  to  pursue  the  golden  phantom. 
When  the  missionaries  established  themselves  in  Chau-ch'ing,  in 
Canton  province,  a  company  of  educated  natives  possessed  of 
considerable  means  were  busily  engaged  in  seeking  to  solve  the 
problem  of  ages.  A  servant  of  the  missionaries  hinted  to  them 
that  those  learned  Europeans  were  already  in  possession  of  it. 
Believing  his  assertion,  they  began  to  load  him  with  favors  to 
induce  him  to  obtain  the  secret,  for  their  advantage.  They  gave 
him  fine  clothes,  and  furnished  him  with  money  to  hire  hand- 
some apartments  and  purchase  a  beautiful  wife ;  while  he,  on 
his  part,  was  in  no  haste  to  fulfil  his  engagement.  He  was  only 
waiting  for  the  Western  sphinxes  to  open  their  lips.  But  the 

bon,  science  does  not  undertake  to  pronounce ;  and  more  than  one  experi- 
menter has  claimed  to  have  achieved  partial  success. 

*  By  the  side  of  his  lifeless  corpse  a  letter  was  found  directing  that "  a 
few  particles  of  my  '  creative  all-changeful  essence '  be  scattered  over  my  re- 
mains, when  the  elements  will  resolve  themselves  into  a  new  combination, 
and  I  will  reappear  a  living  evidence  of  the  truth  of  this  new  discovery." 
If  these  are  the  words  of  a  madman,  they  are  those  of  one  whose  brain  was 
turned  by  the  study  of  alchemy.  I  have  only  to  add  that  a  large  bottle 
containing  the  elixir  was  found  standing  by  the  letter  (Scientific  American, 
March  31, 1877).  If  this  poor  fellow  was  the  last  to  offer  himself  as  a  sac- 
rifice to  the  Moloch  of  alchemy,  the  last  alchemist  who  succeeded  in  victim- 
izing the  public  was  the  notorious  Count  Cagliostro,  who,  after  vending  his 
"elixir  of  immortal  youth"  in  most  of  the  courts  of  Europe,  closed  his  ca- 
reer in  a  papal  prison  in  1795. 


172  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

patience  of  his  generous  victims  finally  gave  out ;  or,  what  is 
more  probable,  they  learned  from  the  missionaries  that  they  had 
no  such  secret  to  communicate.  To  escape  their  vengeance,  the 
crafty  rogue  was  compelled  to  fly  to  a  neighboring  city,  where 
he  ended  his  days  in  a  prison. 

If  the  Chinese  are  the  last  to  surrender  this  pleasing  delusion, 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  they  deserve  the  more  honora- 
ble distinction  of  being  the  first  to  originate  the  idea. 

The  origin  of  an  idea  so  fruitful  in  results  is  a  question  of 
great  interest;  and  many  writers  have  expended  on  it  the  re- 
sources of  their  learning.  Some  find  it  in  the  mythology  of  the 
Greeks,  maintaining  (an  interpretation  older  than  the  Christian 
era)  that  the  golden  fleece  sought  for  by  the  Argonauts  was 
merely  a  sheepskin  on  which  was  inscribed  the  secret  of  making 
gold;*  and  this  fancy  derives,  it  must  be  confessed,  a  little  support 
from  the  circumstance  that  Medea  is  represented  as  possessed  of 
the  corresponding  secret  of  perpetuating  or  restoring  youth,  hav- 
ing cut  to  pieces  and  reconstructed  her  aged  father-in-law. 

Some,  again,  discover  the  origin  of  the  idea  in  Egypt,  the  land 
of  Thoth  (Hermes  Trismegistus),  and  allege,  in  corroboration  of 
their  view,  that  the  ancient  Egyptians  possessed  considerable 
skill  in  practical  chemistry.  But  the  advocates  of  its  Egyptian 
origin  are  not  able  to  trace  it  back  further  than  the  time  of  the 
Ptolemies,  and  students  of  Hindoo  literature  maintain  that  the 
Indians  possessed  a  knowledge  of  it  long  before  that  date, 
though  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  there  is  nothing  more  un- 
certain than  the  chronology  of  ancient  India,  f 

*  This  construction  of  the  legend  comes  from  Dionysius  of  Mitylene,  who 
lived  circa  B.C.  60. 

t  Some  instructive  disclosures  on  this  subject  may  be  found  in  a  lecture 
of  the  late  Cardinal  Wiseman  entitled  "  Early  History."  It  has  been  as- 
serted by  those  who  claim  to  be  well  versed  in  the  history  of  India  that  in 
that  country  the  earliest  date  that  can  be  considered  historical  is  April,  B.C. 
327,  the  date  of  its  invasion  by  Alexander  the  Great. 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  173 

Others  adduce  conclusive  proof  to  show  that  modern  Europe 
received  it  from  the  Arabs.  They  have  not,  however,  shown  that 
the  Arabs  were  its  authors;  and  seem  scarcely  to  have  enter- 
tained a  suspicion  that  those  wandering  sons  of  the  desert,  like 
birds  and  bees,  were  nothing  more  than  agents  through  whom  a 
prolific  germ  was  conveyed  from  some  portion  of  the  remoter 
East.  What  that  portion  is,  the  name  of  Avicenna,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Arabian  scholars,  might  have  served  to 
suggest,  if  they  had  followed  the  leading  of  words  as  carefully 
as  a  certain  erudite  Orientalist*  who  not  only  finds  in  India  the 
origin  of  the  doctrines  of  Pythagoras,  but  recognizes  his  name 
under  the  disguise  of  Buddhaguru !  For  what  is  Avicenna  but 
Ebn-Cinna?  And  what  is  Ebn-Cinna  or  Ibn  Sina,  as  it  is  some- 
times written,  but  a  "  Son  of  China  ?" — a  designation  possibly  as- 
sumed by  the  learned  physician  because  he  was  born  at  Bokhara, 
on  the  confines  of  the  Chinese  Empire ! 

If  we  were  as  ready  to  rest  in  etymologies  as  the  above-cited 
Orientalist,  who  triumphantly  concludes  a  chapter  with  that  curi- 
ous derivation  of  the  name  of  Pythagoras,  we  might  consider 
our  point  as  carried.  Our  etymology  is,  to  say  the  least,  as 
good  as  his ;  but  we  let  it  go  for  what  it  is  worth,  and  rest  our 
argument  on  better  evidence.f 

*  Pococke,  Greece  in  India. 

•f-  Nothing  is  more  fallacious  than  the  attempt  to  identify  words  in  differ- 
ent languages  by  means  of  a  mere  superficial  resemblance.  Some  years 
ago,  in  reading  the  Amour  Medecin  of  Moliere,  I  fancied  I  had  detected  a 
translation  in  a  combined  form  of  the  most  familiar  names  for  the  Chinese 
elixir  of  life.  The  word  orvietan,  which  is  made  so  conspicuous  in  one  of 
the  scenes,  describes  a  mysterious  panacea,  whose  virtues  the  vender  vaunts 
in  strains  as  pompous  as  those  of  the  Chinese  alchemist.  It  struck  me  at 
once  that,  setting  aside  the  accent,  which  goes  for  nothing  in  etymology,  it 
might  be  taken  as  expressing  -^  «W«  and  Jj|.  ^  ^",  golden  elixir,  and 
elixir  of  long  life.  Littre  and  the  Dictionnaire  de  V Academic  decided 
against  me,  referring  the  word  to  the  old  city  of  Orvieto  (urbs  veins).  But, 
whatever  the  source  of  the  name,  the  thing  itself  answers  so  exactly  to  the 


174  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

It  is  not  improbable,  as  we  shall  attempt  to  show,  that  the  true 
cradle  of  alchemy  was  China — a  country  in  which  one  of  the  old- 
est branches  of  the  human  family  began  their  career  of  experi- 
ence ;  a  country  in  which  we  discover  so  many  of  the  seeds  of 
our  modern  arts ;  germs  which,  dwarfed  and  stunted  in  their  na- 
tive climate,  have  only  been  made  to  flourish  by  a  change  of  soil. 
To  establish  this  would  be  an  interesting  contribution  to  the  his- 
tory of  science ;  and  it  might  perhaps  lead  us  to  take  an  optimistic 
view  even  of  the  sins  and  follies  of  mankind,  to  discover  that 
our  modern  chemistry,  which  is  now  dropping  its  mature  fruits 
into  the  hands  of  Western  enterprise,  had  its  root  in  the  religion 
of  Tao,  the  most  extravagant  of  the  superstitions  of  the  East. 

We  shall  briefly  sketch  the  rise  and  development  of  alchemy 
in  China,  and  then  conclude  by  comparing  it  with  the  leading 
phases  of  the  same  pursuit  as  exhibited  in  Western  countries. 

Originating  at  the  least  six  hundred  years  before  the  Christian 
era,*  the  religion  of  Tao  still  exerts  a  powerful  influence  over 

Chinese  tan,  or  elixir,  that  I  cannot  forbear  quoting  a  few  Hues  descriptive 
of  its  qualities. 

"  SganareHe.  Monsieur,  je  vous  prie  de  me  donner  une  boite  de  votre  orvie- 
tan,  que  je  m'en  vais  vous  payer. 
"  L1  Operateur  (chantant). 
L'or  de  tous  les  climats  qu'entoure  1'Ocean, 
Peut-il  jamais  payer  ce  secret  d'importance  ? 
Mon  remede  guerit,  par  sa  rare  excellence, 
Plus  de  maux  qu'on  n'en  peut  nombrer  dans  tout  un  an : 

La  gale,  La  rogne,  La  teigne,  La  fievre,  La  peste,  La  goutte, 

Verole,  Descente,  Rougeole. 
0  grande  puissance 
De  1'orvietan !" 

The  reader  may  compare  this  with  passages  quoted  in  the  sequel  from 
Taoist  books. 

N.B. — Or,  in  the  first  line  of  the  description,  is  an  evident  allusion  to  the 
first  syllable  of  the  name,  which  the  vender  takes  to  mean  "  golden." 

*  It  is  indigenous  to  China ;  and  though  we  are  unable  to  trace  it  to  au 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  175 

the  mind  of  the  Chinese.  This  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  either 
its  sober  tenets  or  its  wild  fantasies,  but  there  is  one  of  its  doc- 
trines that  connects  it  closely  with  our  present  subject.  It  looks 
on  the  soul  as  only  a  more  refined  form  of  matter ;  regards  the 
soul  and  body  as  identical  in  substance,  and  maintains  the  pos- 
sibility of  preventing  their  dissolution  by  a  course  of  physical 
discipline.  This  is  the  seed-thought  of  Chinese  alchemy;  for 
this  materialistic  notion  it  was  that  first  led  the  disciples  of  Lao- 
tsze  to  investigate  the  properties  of  matter. 

Its  development  is  easy  to  trace.  Man's  first  desire  is  long 
life — his  second  is  to  be  rich.  The  Taoist  commenced  with  the 
former,  but  was  not  long  in  finding  his  way  to  the  latter.  As  it 
was  possible  by  physical  discipline  to  lengthen  the  period  of 
life,  he  conceived  that  the  process  might  be  carried  on  without 
limit,  and  result  in  corporeal  immortality.  Its  success,  in  his 
view,  depended  mainly  on  diet  and  medicine ;  and  in  quest  of 
these  he  ransacked  the  forest,  penetrated  the  earth,  and  explored 
distant  seas.  The  natural  longing  for  immortality  was  thus 
made,  under  the  guidance  of  Taoism,  to  impart  a  powerful  im- 
pulse to  the  progress  of  discovery  in  three  departments  of  sci- 
ence— botany,  mineralogy,  and  geography.  Nor  did  the  other 
great  object  of  pursuit  remain  far  in  the  rear.  A  few  simple 
experiments,  such  as  the  precipitation  of  copper  from  the  oil  of 
vitriol  by  the  application  of  iron,  and  the  blanching  of  metals 
by  the  fumes  of  mercury,  suggested  the  possibility  of  transform- 
ing the  baser  metals  into  gold.*  This  brought  on  the  stage  an- 

earlier  date,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  it  is  as  old  as  the  Chinese 
race.  The  connection  of  alchemy  with  Taoism  did  not  escape  the  notice  of 
the  earlier  Jesuit  missionaries ;  but  the  Rev.  Dr.  Edkins,  in  a  paper  on  Tao- 
ism published  about  twenty  years  ago,  was  the  first,  I  believe,  to  suggest  a 
Chinese  origin  for  the  alchemy  of  Europe. 

*  Science  is  not  opposed  to  the  abstract  theory  of  transmutation.  Indeed, 
the  modern  chemist  has  been  led  by  the  phenomena  of  allotropy  and  isome- 
rism,  not  to  speak  of  other  considerations,  almost  to  accept  as  a  principle 


176  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

other,  and,  if  possible,  a  more  energetic,  motive  for  investigation. 
The  bare  idea  of  acquiring  untold  riches  by  such  easy  means  in- 
spired with  a  kind  of  frenzy  minds  that  were  hardly  capable 
of  the  loftier  conception  of  immortality.  It  had,  moreover,  the 
effect  of  directing  attention  particularly  to  the  study  of  minerals, 
the  most  prolific  field  for  chemical  discovery. 

Whether  in  the  vegetable  or  the  mineral  kingdom,  the  re- 
searches of  the  Chinese  alchemists  were  guided  by  one  simple 
principle — the  analogy  of  man  to  material  nature.  As  in  their 
view  the  soul  was  only  a  more  refined  species  of  matter,  and  was 
endowed  with  such  wondrous  powers,  so  every  object  in  nature, 
they  argued,  must  be  possessed  of  a  soul,  an  essence  or  spirit, 
which  controls  its  growth  and  development — a  something  not  un- 
like the  essentia  quinta  of  Western  alchemy.  This  they  believed 
to  be  the  case,  not  only  with  animals,  which  display  some  of  the 
attributes  of  mind,  but  with  plants,  which  extract  their  appropri- 
ate nourishment  from  the  earth,  and  transform  it  into  fruits; 
and  the  same  with  minerals,  which  they  regarded  as  generated 
in  the  womb  of  the  earth.  It  was  to  this  half-spiritual,  half- 

what  he  lately  denounced  as  a  groundless  assumption  of  his  ancient  fore- 
runner— viz.,  that  a  fundamental  unity  underlies  many,  if  not  all  of,  the  forms 
of  matter.  On  this  subject  see  two  interesting  papers  in  the  Tolume  of  Na- 
ture  for  1879  (pp.  593,  625)  on  the  question  "Are  the  Elements  Elementary?" 
The  writer  speaks  approvingly  of  the  hypothesis  of  original  matter  having 
a  molecular  or  atomic  structure ;  all  the  molecules  being  uniform  in  size 
and  in  shape,  but  not  all  possessed  of  the  same  amount  of  motion — the 
difference  of  their  motions  giving  rise  to  all  the  properties  of  the  various 
elements.  The  speculation  which  resolves  matter  into  force  tends  in  the 
same  direction.  "  I  must  confess,"  says  Professor  Cook,  "  that  I  am  rather 
drawn  to  that  view  of  nature  which  has  favor  with  many  of  the  most  emi- 
nent physicists  of  the  present  time,  and  which  sees  in  the  Cosmos,  besides 
mind,  only  two  essentially  distinct  beings — namely,  matter  and  energy ;  which 
regards  all  matter  as  one,  and  all  energy  as  one ;  and  which  refers  the  quali- 
ties of  substances  to  the  affections  of  the  one  substratum  modified  by  the  vary- 
ing play  of  forces"  (Lectures  on  the  New  Chemistry,  lecture  iv.,  International 
Series). 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  177 

material  theory  that  they  had  recourse  to  account  for  the  trans- 
formations that  are  perpetually  going  on  in  every  department  of 
nature.  As  the  active  principle  in  each  object  was  so  potent  in 
effecting  the  changes  which  we  constantly  observe,  they  imagined 
that  it  might  attain  to  a  condition  of  higher  development  and 
greater  efficiency.  Such  an  upward  tendency  was,  in  fact,  perpet- 
ually at  work ;  and  all  things  were  striving  to  "  purge  off  their 
baser  fires  "  and  enter  on  a  higher  and  purer  state.  Nor  were 
they  merely  striving  to  clothe  themselves  with  material  forms 
of  a  higher  order.  Matter  itself  was  constantly  passing  the 
limits  of  sense  and  putting  on  the  character  of  conscious  spirit. 
This  idea  threw  over  the  face  of  nature  a  glow  of  poetry.  It 
awakened  the  torpid  imagination  and  created  an  epoch  in  litera- 
ture. It  kindled  the  fancy  of  Chwang-tsze,  inspired  the  elo- 
quence of  Lii-tsu,  and  it  figures  in  a  thousand  shapes  among  the 
graceful  tales  of  the  Liau-chai.  It  filled  the  earth  with  fairies 
and  genii.  An  easy  step  connected  them  with  those  mysteri- 
ous points  of  light  which  in  all  ages  have  excited  so  powerfully 
the  hopes  and  fears  of  the  human  race.  Astrology  became 
wedded  to  alchemy,  and  the  five  principal  planets  bear  in  the 
current  language  of  the  present  day  the  names'  of  the  elements 
over  which  they  are  regarded  as  presiding. 

In  China,  as  elsewhere,  alchemy  has  always  been  an  occult 
science.  Its  students  have  been  pledged  to  secrecy,  and  their 
knowledge  transmitted  mainly  by  means  of  oral  tradition,  each 
adept  tracing  his  lineage  back  to  Hwang-te  (B.C.  2700)  or 
Kwang-ch'eng-tsze,  as  the  Freemason  deduces  his  pedigree  from 
Solomon  or  Hiram  of  Tyre.* 

Their  doctrines,  like  the  delicate  beauties  of  some  Eastern 
climes,  were  never  allowed  to  go  abroad  without  being  covered 
with  a  veil.  They  were  wrapped  in  folds  of  impenetrable  mys- 

*  Hwang-te  is  at  least  semi-mythical.  The  earliest  historical  sovereign 
who  became  a  votary  of  alchemy  was  Ts'in-she-hwang,  the  builder  of  the 
Great  Wall,  B.  C.  220. 

8* 


178  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

tery,  and  expressed,  for  the  most  part,  in  the  measured  lines  and 
metaphorical  language  of  poetry.  Still,  in  spite  of  every  pre- 
caution that  pride  or  jealousy  was  able  to  suggest,  some  of  their 
secrets  would  gradually  ooze  out,  and  many  of  the  rules  for 
working  metals  now  in  common  use  bear  in  their  very  terms 
the  stamp  of  an  alchemic  parentage. 

After  this  cursory  survey,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  introduce  a 
few  extracts  from  native  authors,  professors  of  the  mysterious 
lore,  in  order  to  ascertain  how  far  they  corroborate  the  forego- 
ing views,  but  especially  to  aid  us  in  deciding  whether  any 
real  connection  is  to  be  traced  between  the  Chinese  and  Eu- 
ropean schools  of  alchemy. 

I.    FROM    KAO    SHANG-T8ZE. 

The  Secret  of  Immortality* 

"  The  body  is  the  dwelling-place  of  life ;  the  spirits  are  the 
essence  of  life ;  and  the  soul  is  the  master  of  life.  When  the 
spirits  are  exhausted,  the  body  becomes  sick ;  when  the  soul  is 
in  repose,  the  spirits  keep  their  place ;  and  when  the  spirits  are 
concentrated,  the  soul  becomes  indestructible.  Those  who  seek 
the  elixir  must  imitate  the  Yin  and  Yang  [the  active  and  pas- 
sive principles  in  nature]  and  learn  the  harmony  of  numbers. 
They  must  govern  the  soul  and  unite  their  spirit.  If  the  soul 
is  a  chariot,  the  spirits  are  its  horses.  When  the  soul  and  spirits 
are  properly  yoked  together,  you  are  immortal." 

*  These  extracts  are  not  arranged  in  the  order  of  time.  The  antiquity  of 
the  system  will  be  considered  in  another  place ;  and  I  begin  with  two  from 
writers  whose  age  I  am  not  able  to  fix  with  precision.  For  the  citations 
from  both  I  am  indebted  to  a  compilation,  in  twelve  volumes,  entitled 
5"  ^  3L  ^J*  •  Tne  name,  literally  taken,  would  suggest  a  work  specif- 
ically on  the  subject  of  alchemy ;  but  it  is  figurative,  and  means  the  elixir 
or  quintessence  of  the  philosophers.  Among  the  philosophers  cited,  those 
who  favored  alchemy  are  in  a  very  small  minority. 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  179 

II.    FROM    TAN-TSZE. 

The  Power  of  Miracles. 

"The  clouds  are  a  dragon,  the  wind  a  tiger.  Mind  is  the 
mother,  and  matter  the  child.  When  the  mother  summons  the 
child,  will  it  dare  to  disobey  ?  Those  who  would  expel  the 
spirits  of  evil  must  (by  the  force  of  their  mind)  summon  the 
spirits  of  the  five  elements.  Those  who  would  conquer  serpents 
must  obtain  the  influences  of  the  five  planets.  By  this  means 
the  Yin  and  Yang,  the  dual,  forces  of  nature,  may  be  controlled ; 
winds  and  clouds  collected ;  mountains  and  hills  torn  up  by  the 
roots ;  and  rivers  and  seas  made  to  spring  out  of  the  ground. 
Still  the  external  manifestation  of  this  power  is  not  so  good  as 
the  consciousness  of  its  possession  within." 

III.    FROM    THE    SAME. 

The  Adept  Superior  to  Hunger,  Cold,  and  Sickness. 

"  He  inhales  the  fine  essence  of  matter,  how  can  he  be  hungry  ? 
He  is  warmed  by  the  fire  of  his  own  soul,  how  can  he  be  cold  ? 
His  five  vitals  are  fed  on  the  essence  of  the  five  elements,  how 
can  he  be  sick  ?" 

IV.    FROM    Ltf-TSU,   OF    THE    TANG    DYNASTY.* 

Patience  Essential  to  Success. 

"  Would  you  seek  the  golden  tan  [the  elixir],  it  is  not  easy 
to  obtain.  The  three  powers  [sun,  moon,  and  stars]  must  seven 
times  repeat  their  footsteps;  and  the  four  seasons  nine  times 
complete  their  circuit. 

*  Lii-tsu  (or  Lii-yien)  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighth  century.  In 
early  life  respected  as  a  scholar  and  a  magistrate,  and  in  later  years  famed 
for  the  eloquence  of  his  style  and  the  elevation  of  his  character,  he  did 
much  to  revive  the  decaying  credit  of  the  "  school  of  the  genii."  His  works 
are  voluminous  and  well  known,  but,  like  most  of  those  ascribed  to  the  great 
masters  of  Taoism,  probably  comprehend  much  that  is  not  genuine. 


180  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

"  You  must  wash  it  white  and  burn  it  red ;  when  one  draught 
will  give  you  ten  thousand  ages,  and  you  will  be  wafted  beyond 
the  sphere  of  sublunary  things." 

V.  FROM    THE    SAME. 

The  Necessity  of  a  Living  Teacher. 

"  Every  one  seeks  long  life,  but  the  secret  is  not  easy  to  find. 
If  you  covet  the  precious  things  of  heaven,  you  must  reject  the 
treasures  of  earth.  You  must  kindle  the  fire  that  springs  from 
water,*  and  evolve  the  Yin  contained  within  the  Yang.  One 
word  from  a  sapient  master,  and  you  possess  a  draught  of  the 
golden  water." 

VI.  FROM    THE    SAME. 

The  Chief  Elements  in  Alchemy. 

"  All  things  originate  from  earth.  If  you  can  get  at  the  rad- 
ical principle,  the  spirit  of  the  green  dragon  is  mercury,  and  the 
water  of  the  white  tiger  f  is  lead.  The  knowing  ones  snll  bring 

*  This  phrase  reminds  us  of  a  quaint  piece  of  doggerel  from  the  pen  of 
George  Ripley,  a  noted  alchemist  of  England,  who  died  in  1490,  notwith- 
standing the  medicines  recommended  in  his  two  books  on  Alchymie  and 
Aurum  Potabile.  The  following  are  a  few  of  his  incomprehensible  verses : 

"  The  well  must  brenne  in  water  clear, 
Take  good  heed,  for  this  they  fere, 
The  fire  with  water  brent  shall  be, 
The  earth  on  fire  shall  be  set 
And  water  with  fire  shall  be  knit. 

Of  the  white  stone  and  the  red 
Lo,  here  is  the  true  deed !" 

f  Yin  and  Yang  are  the  dual  forces  which  control  the  elements  of  nat- 
ure. Though  generally  referred  to  the  sexual  system,  their  "chief  symbols 
are  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the  original  signification  of  the  terms  is  light 
and  darkness.  The  "  tiger  "  and  "  dragon  "  are  synonyms  for  the  oft-re- 
peated Yin  and  Yang.  Their  use  in  this  sense  is  comparatively  ancient,  as 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  181 

mother  and  child  together,  when  earth  will  become  heaven,  and 
you  will  be  extricated  from  the  power  of  matter." 

VII.    FROM    THE    SAME. 

Description  of  the  Philosopher's  Stone :  Self -culture  Necessary  to  Ob- 
tain it. 

"  I  must  diligently  plant  my  own  field.  There  is  within  it  a 
spiritual  germ  that  may  live  a  thousand  years.  Its  flower  is  like 
yellow  gold.  Its  bud  is  not  large,  but  the  seeds  are  round 
[globules  of  mercury  ?]  and  like  to  a  spotless  gem.  Its  growth 
depends  on  the  soil  of  the  central  palace  [the  heart],  but  its  ir- 
rigation must  proceed  from  a  higher  fountain  [the  reason]. 
After  nine  years  of  cultivation,  root  and  branch  may  be  trans- 
planted to  the  heaven  of  the  greater  genii." 

VIII.    FROM    A    BIOGRAPHER    OF    LU-TSU. 

Speaking  of  the  labors  of  his  great  master,  he  says,  "  Among 
the  eight  stones,  he  made  most  use  of  cinnabar,  because  from 
that  he  extracted  mercury  ;  and  among  the  five  metals,  he  made 
most  use  of  lead,  because  from  that  he  obtained  silver.  The 
fire  of  the  heart  [blood]  is  red  as  cinnabar ;  and  the  water  of  the 
kidneys  [urine]  is  dark  as  lead.  To  these  must  be  added  sulphur, 
that  the  compound  may  be  efficacious.  Lead  is  the  mother  of 
silver,  mercury  the  child  of  cinnabar.  Lead  represents  the  influ- 
ence of  the  kidneys,  mercury  that  of  the  heart." 

But  "jam  claudite  rivos"  some  reader  is,  no  doubt,  ready  to 
exclaim — "  enough  of  this  jargon,  or  rather  gibberish."  For  is  it 
not  truly  gibberish,  if  Dr.  Johnson  was  correct  in  deriving  that 
word  from  the  name  of  Geber,  the  great  alchemist  ?  We  must, 
however,  plead  for  the  privilege  of  introducing  a  few  extracts 


we  may  gather  from  the  title  of  a  book  still  extant  called  6  jf£*  jjlf  ,  by  the 
historian  Panku,  in  the  first  century  of  our  era. 


182  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

from  the  Wu-chen-pien*  a  work  winch  still  holds  the  place  of  a 
text-book  among  the  followers  of  Lao-tsze.  They  will  serve  to 
indicate  the  spirit  and  aim  of  these  operations,  though  the  proc- 
esses are  still  carefully  concealed.  In  fact,  all  that  is  given  to 
the  public  seems  merely  designed  to  inflame  the  imagination,  and 
to  induce  readers  to  place  themselves  under  the  instruction  of  a 
Tauist  master. 

1.  The  Great  Motive. — "However  long  this  mortal  life,  its 
events  are  all  uncertain.     He  who  yesterday  bestrode  his  horse 
so  grandly  at  the  head  of  the  street,  to-day  is  a  corpse  in  the 
coffin.     His  wife  and  his  wealth  are  his  no  longer.     His  sins 
must  take  their  course,  and  self-deception  will  do  no  good.     If 
you  do  not  seek  the  great  remedy,  how  will  you  find  it  ?   If  you 
find  out  the  method  and  do  not  prepare  it,  how  unwise  are 
you !" 

2.  A  Vindication. — "  If  the  virtuous  follow  a  false  doctrine, 
they  reclaim  it ;  but  if  the  vicious  profess  a  true  doctrine,  they 
pervert  it.     So  it  is  with  the  golden  elixir :  a  deviation  of  an 
inch  leads  to  the  error  of  a  mile.     If  I  succeed,  then  my  fate  is 
in  my  own  hands,  and  my  body  may  last  as  long  as  the  heavens. 
But  the  vulgar  pervert  this  doctrine  to  the  gratification  of  low 
desires  [such  as  those  for  wealth  and  pleasure]." 

3.  Outline  of  Process. — "  In  the  gold-furnace  you  must  sepa- 
rate the  mercury  from  the  cinnabar,  and  in  the  gemmy  bath  you 
must  precipitate  the  silver  from  the  water.     To  wield  the  fires 
of  this  divine  work  is  not  the  task  of  a  day.     But  out  of  the 
midst  of  the  pool  suddenly  the  sun  rises."  f 


*  This  collection  bears  the  name  of  the  principal  tract,  'f^  ^  Jjfc,  which 
dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is  usually  bound  up  with 
the  ;g&  [pj  43 ,  a  more  weighty  production  which  comes  down  from  the  sec- 
ond century.  The  phrase  for  the  precipitation  of  silver  is  "~j»  7JC  *[<$&. 

f  A  few  years  ago  I  made  the  acquaintance  of  a  Kiangsi  man  by  the 
name  of  Hiung,  who  had  published  a  book  of  some  literary  merit,  and  was 


ALCUEMY    IN    CHINA.  183 

No  one  at  all  acquainted  with  the  operations  of  chemistry  can 
fail  to  remark  how  much  is  implied  in  this  reference  to  the  pre- 
cipitation of  silver.  Nor  can  any  one  familiar  with  the  language 
of  Western  alchemists  avoid  being  struck  by  the  similarity  of  the 
terms  here  employed.  As  he  reads  of  "  separating  mercury  from 
cinnabar,"  "precipitating  silver,"  "wielding  the  fires  of  the  di- 
vine work,"  the  "  gemmy  bath,"  and  the  "  sun  rising  out  of  the 
pool,"  does  he  not  fancy  himself  perusing  a  fragment  from  Lully 
or  Albertus  describing  the  balneum  marice  and  the  production 
of  gold  ? 

We  add  three  more  to  our  series  of  illustrative  extracts : 

1.  The  Reason  for   Obscure  and  Figurative  Phraseology. — 
"  The  holy  sage  was  afraid  of  betraying  the  secrets  of  heaven. 
He  accordingly  sets  forth  the  true  Yin  and  Yang  under  the 
images  of  the  white  tiger  and  the  green  dragon.     And  the  har- 
mony of  the  two  chords  he  represents  under  the  symbols  of  the 
true  lead  and  the  true  mercury."  * 

2.  Nature  of  the  Inward  Harmony. — "  The  two  things  to  be 
united  are   wuh  and  wo,  %  and  ^Jj,  the  me  and  the  not  me. 
When  these  combine,  the  passions  are  in  harmony  with  nature, 
and  the  elements  are  complete." 

withal  an  ardent  student  of  the  occult  science.  A  manuscript  volume  of 
his  own  compilation,  which  he  permitted  me  to  examine,  contained,  among 
other  diagrams,  one  which  represented  the  sun  rising  out  of  a  smoking  fur- 
nace— showing  that  the  hermetic  symbol  for  gold  is  the  same  in  China  as 
in  Europe. 

*  It  is  curious  to  see  how  Western  alchemists  exhibit  the  same  phase  of 
feeling.  Howes,  an  old  writer,  quoted  in  Mr.  Lowell's  New  England  of  Two 
Centuries  Ago,  expresses  himself  thus  in  a  familiar  epistle :  "  Dear  friend,  I 
desire  with  all  my  heart  that  I  might  write  plainer  to  you ;  but  in  discover- 
ing the  mystery,  I  may  diminish  its  majesty,  and  give  occasion  to  the  pro- 
fane to  abuse  it,  if  it  should  fall  into  unworthy  hands."  The  mystery  was 
the  unity  of  matter.  He  adds,  "  As  there  is  all  good  to  be  found  in  unity, 
and  all  evil  in  duality  and  multiplicity,  plvxnvt  ilia  admiranda  sola  semper 
exislit." 


184  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

In  other  passages  we  have  noticed  the  outcropping  of  a  moral 
idea.  In  this  we  find  a  materialistic  doctrine  suddenly  meta- 
morphosed into  the  most  subtle  form  of  pantheistic  idealism. 

3.  Self-discipline  the  Best  Elixir  (from  Tan-tsze,  not  in  Wu- 
chen-pien). — "  Among  the  arts  of  the  alchemist  is  that  of  pre- 
paring an  elixir  which  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  food. 
This  is  certainly  true;  yet  the  ability  to  enjoy  abundance  or 
endure  hunger  comes  not  from  the  elixir,  but  from  the  fixed 
purpose  of  him  who  uses  it.  When  a  man  has  arrived  at  such 
a  stage  of  progress  that  to  have  and  not  to  have  are  the  same ; 
when  life  and  death  are  one ;  when  feeling  is  in  harmony  with 
nature,  and  the  inner  and  the  outer  worlds  united — then  he  can 
escape  the  thraldom  of  matter,  and  leave  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
behind  his  back.  To  him  it  will  then  be  of  no  consequence 
whether  he  eat  a  hundred  times  in  a  day,  or  only  once  in  a  hun- 
dred days."  We  might  fill  volumes  with  similar  extracts  with- 
out, wre  fear,  adding  much  to  the  information  of  our  readers. 

The  composition  of  the  elixir  was  a  secret  which  the  alche- 
mist did  not  care  to  divulge.  If,  therefore,  we  seek  for  precise 
directions  for  its  preparation  in  the  writings  of  a  professed 
adept,  we  seek  in  vain. 

There  is,  indeed,  one  oft-repeated  formula,  which  appears  to 
be  absurdly  simple.  It  is  this :  "  Pb.  8  oz.,  Hg.  -^  Ib. ;  mix  thor- 
oughly, and  the  combination  will  result  in  a  mass  of  the  golden 
elixir."  But  it  ceases  to  be  simple  when  we  learn  that  both 
metals  and  proportions  are  to  be  taken  in  a  mystical  sense; 
that,  in  fact,  instead  of  indicating  the  materials  of  the  elixir, 
they  only  point  to  the  precise  moment  when  the  final  touch  is 
to  be  given  to  a  complicated  process — viz.,  one  minute  after  the 
full  of  the  moon.  If  this  resolves  itself  into  "  moonshine," 
another,  which  has  the  air  of  being  more  in  detail,  is  still  less 
luminous.  "Plant  the  Yang  and  grow  the  Yin;  cultivate  and 
cherish  the  precious  seed.  When  it  springs  up,  it  shows  a  yel- 
low bud ;  the  bud  produces  mercury,  and  the  mercury  crystallizes 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  185 

into  granules  like  grains  of  golden  millet.  One  grain  is  to  be 
taken  at  a  dose,  and  the  doses  repeated  for  a  hundred  days,  when 
the  body  will  be  transformed  and  the  bones  converted  into  gold. 
Body  and  spirit  will  both  be  endowed  with  miraculous  proper- 
ties, and  their  duration  will  have  no  end."  These  recipes  are 
both  from  standard  text-books  of  the  Taoist  school.* 

*  The  former  is  from  the  'fj£  J|  J|  ;  the  latter  from  ^  ^  fifa  £z  . 
Kohhung  (or  Pao-pu-tsze  —  Simplicius),  of  the  fourth  century,  is  one  of  the 
most  voluminous  writers  on  the  subject.  He  gives  nine  varieties  of  the  tan, 
but  no  clear  account  of  the  preparation  of  any  of  them.  The  following 
extract  from  his  work  may  serve  to  show  the  kind  of  reasoning  by  which 
he  and  his  fellows  suffered  themselves  to  be  deluded  : 


& 


pi      Jtj-     tjA 

£l  It  m 


ft  £  A  .  it  .  M  .  •'  .*  3L  *  •  '&' 
&  T        tttXJI^^^RW 


PI  ^a  -^  £1  +  ^   S  tf 


HB    B  *  £  4  IT       E  7  $  tt 


"I  formerly  thought  the  Taoist  mystery  was  intended  to  delude  simple 
folk,  and  that  there  was  nothing  in  it  but  empty  words  ;  but  when  I  saw 
the  Emperor  Wu  subject  Tso-tse  and  others  to  a  fast  of  nearly  a  month  — 
their  complexion  continuing  fresh  and  their  strength  unabated  —  I  said 
there  was  no  reason  why  they  should  not  extend  the  fast  to  fifty  years. 

"Another  Taoist,  Kan-shi,  placed  a  number  of  fish  in  boiling  oil;  some 
of  them  having  first  swallowed  a  few  drops  of  an  elixir,  swam  about  as  if 
they  were  in  the  water,  the  others  were  boiled  so  that  they  could  be  eaten. 

"  Silk-worms  taking  the  same  medicine  lived  for  ten  months  ;  chickens 
and  young  dogs  taking  it  ceased  to  grow;  and  a  white  dog  on  taking  it 
turned  black  ;  all  of  which  shows  that  there  are  things  in  heaven  and  earth 


186  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

We  find  a  more  explicit  account  of  the  composition  of  the 
elixir  in  the  Ko-chi  king-yuen,  $f  Jfc  t*  W»  or  Mirror  of  Scien- 
tific Discovery ;  but  here  again  we  are  not  favored  with  anything 
beyond  a  barren  inventory  of  ingredients,  without  any  statement 
of  proportion  or  manipulation. 

"The  elixir  of  the  eight  precious  things,"  says  this  author, 
"is  so  called  because  it  contains  cinnabar,  orpiment,  realgar,  sul- 
phur, saltpetre,  ammonia,  empty  green  [an  ore  of  cobalt],  and 
inother-of-clouds  [a  kind  of  mica]." 

This  and  the  other  passages  above  cited  throw,  we  confess, 
very  little  light  on  any  question  of  practical  science ;  but  they 
are  not  unimportant  in  relation  to  the  history  of  science,  indi- 
cating as  they  do  the  spirit  and  aims  of  the  Chinese  alchemists — 
the  most  enthusiastic,  and,  as  we  think,  the  earliest,  explorers  in 
a  region  which  has  proved  to  be  one  of  inexhaustible  fertility. 

The  results  of  their  labors  in  the  way  of  chemical  discovery  it 
may  not  be  easy  to  determine ;  though  it  is  safe  to  affirm  that, 
for  what  they  knew  on  that  subject  prior  to  their  recent  inter- 
course with  the  West,  the  Chinese  are  mainly  indebted  to  those 
early  devotees  of  the  experimental  philosophy  who  passed  their 
lives  among  the  fumes  of  the  alembic.  The  skill  which  the 
Chinese  exhibit  in  metallurgy,  their  brilliant  dye-stuffs  and  nu- 
merous pigments ;  their  early  knowledge  of  gunpowder,*  alcohol, 


surpassing  our  comprehension.     Would  that  I  could  break  the  fetters  of 
sense  and  give  my  whole  heart  to  the  pursuit  of  the  elixir  of  life !" 

*  An  able  paper,  by  the  late  W.  F.  Mayers,  on  the  origin  of  gunpowder, 
may  be  considered  as  decisive  against  the  claims  of  the  Chinese,  unless 
fresh  evidence  be  adduced  in  their  favor.  That  the  Chinese  are  not  indif- 
ferent to  the  discussion,  and  that  the  admissions  of  one  are  not  accepted  by 
all,  are  sufficiently  shown  by  the  following  extract  from  an  examination-pa- 
per placed  before  the  candidates  for  the  doctorate  in  Peking,  about  twelve 
years  ago :  "  Fire-arms  began  with  the  use  of  rockets  in  the  Chau  dynasty. 
In  what  book  do  we  first  meet  with  the  wordjo'ao,  fg|,  for  cannon  ?  What 
id  the  difference  in  the  two  classes  of  engines  to  which  it  is  applied  ?  (Ap- 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  187 

arsenic,  Glauber's  salt,  calomel,  and  corrosive  sublimate ;  their 
pyrotechny  ;  their  asphyxiating  and  anesthetic  compounds — all 
give  evidence  of  no  contemptible  proficiency  in  practical  chem- 
istry.* 

In  their  books  of  curious  receipts,  we  find  instructions  for  the 
manufacture  of  sympathetic  inks,  for  removing  stains,  com- 
pounding and  alloying  metals,  counterfeiting  gold,  whitening 
copper,  overlaying  the  baser  with  the  precious  metals,  etc.  In 
some  of  these  recipes  a  caution  is  added  that  neither  "  women, 
cats,  nor  chickens  "  be  allowed  to  approach  during  the  process, 
obviously  a  relic  of  alchemistic  superstition. 

The  Hermes  of  China  has  no  female  disciples,  though  Europe 
can  boast  the  names  of  not  a  few.  The  alchemist  of  China  has 
generally  been  a  celibate,  and  very  frequently  a  religious  ascetic, 
to  whom  the  life-giving  elixir,  rather  than  the  aurific  stone,  was 
the  chief  object  of  pursuit. 

Lii-tsu,  one  of  the  most  eminent,  is  said  to  have  earned  im- 
mortality by  rejecting  the  art  of  making  gold.f 

plied  also  to  catapults.)  Is  the  defence  of  K'ai-feng-fu  its  first  recorded 
use  ?"  etc.  Leaving  these  questions  to  the  native  scholars  to  whom  they 
were  addressed,  I  only  add  that  gunpowder,  like  many  other  useful  discov- 
eries, probably  had  more  than  one  independent  origin.  Its  ingredients  are 
articles  of  daily  use,  and  their  mode  of  combination  is  not  limited  to  any 
definite  proportion,  so  that  the  failure  of  the  Chinese  to  hit  upon  it,  after 
ages  of  chemical  research,  would  be  more  surprising  than  their  success. 

*  See  Davis's  Chinese,  ch.  xviii.,  for  a  very  interesting  account  of  the 
preparation  of  calomel  (chloride  of  mercury)  by  a  Chinese  chemist,  and  by 
a  truly  China  process.  In  the  same  chapter  the  author  sketches  the  fan- 
tastic physical  theories  of  the  Chinese,  and  adds,  "All  this  looks  very 
much  as  if  the  philosophy  of  our  forefathers  was  derived  intermediately 
from  China." 

t  As  the  legend  goes,  shortly  after  commencing  the  study  of  the  art,  he 
was  met  by  one  of  the  old  genii,  who  offered  to  impart  to  him  the  great 
secret  of  transmutation.  "  But,"  asked  the  young  man,  "  will  not  the  arti- 
ficial gold  relapse  to  its  original  elements  in  the  course  of  time  ?"  "  Yes," 
replied  the  genius,  "  but  that  need  not  concern  you,  as  it  will  not  happen  un- 


188  CHINESE    EDUCATION*,  ETC. 

In  the  Chinese  system  there  are  two  processes — the  one  in- 
ward and  spiritual,  the  other  outward  and  material.  To  obtain 
the  greater  elixir,  involving  the  attainment  of  immortality,  both 
must  be  combined ;  but  the  lesser  elixir,  which  answers  to  the 
philosopher's  stone,  or  a  magical  control  over  the  powers  of 
nature,  might  be  procured  with  less  pains.  Both  processes  were 
pursued  in  seclusion,  commonly  in  the  recesses  of  the  moun- 
tains, the  term  for  adepts  signifying  "  mountain  men."  * 

In  a  discourse  on  metals  in  one  of  the  works  above  cited,  we 
are  told  that  the  seminal  principle  of  gold  first  assumes  the  form 
of  quicksilver.  Exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  moon,  it  is  liq- 
uid ;  but  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  the  pure  Yang,  the 
sun  or  the  male  essence,  it  solidifies  and  becomes  yellow  gold. 
Those  who  desire  to  convert  quicksilver  into  gold  should  carry 
on  their  operations  among  the  mountains,  that  the  effluences 
from  the  stones  may  assist  the  process. 

Nothing  seems  to  be  required  in  addition  to  the  incidental 
proofs  already  adduced  to  establish  the  existence  of  a  connection 
between  the  alchemy  of  Europe  and  that  of  China ;  still,  a  few 
considerations  in  the  way  of  comparison  may  serve  to  make  the 
nature  and  extent  of  that  connection  somewhat  more  apparent. 

1.  The  study  of  alchemy  did  not  make  its  appearance  in  Eu- 
rope until  it  had  been  in  full  vigor  in  China  for  at  least  six  cen- 
turies. Nor  did  it  appear  there,  according  to  the  best  authori- 
ties, until  the  fourth  century,  when  intercourse  with  the  Far 
East  had  become  somewhat  frequent.  It  entered  Europe,  more- 
til  after  ten  thousand  ages."  "  I  decline  it  then,"  said  Lii-tsu.  "  I  would 
rather  live  in  poverty  than  bring  a  loss  on  my  fellow-men,  though  after  ten 
thousand  ages."  The  noble  sense  of  right  was  more  meritorious  than  any 
number  of  sham  charities ;  and  the  youth  who  had  conscience  enough  to 
spurn  the  gilded  bait  was  at  once  admitted  to  the  heaven  of  the  genii. 

*  Probably  the  older  form  of  the  character  is  fjfr,  but  no  one  can  doubt 
that  the  motive  which  led  to  the  substitution  of  Ml  for  the  original  phonet- 
ic was  not  merely  its  simplicity,  but  its  signification  as  welL 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  189 

over,  by  way  of  Byzantium  and  Alexandria,  the  places  in  which 
that  intercourse  was  chiefly  centred.  At  a  later  day  it  was  re- 
vived in  the  West  by  the  irruption  of  the  Saracens,  who  may 
be  supposed  to  have  had  better  opportunities  for  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  it  in  consequence  of  being  nearer  to  its  original 
source.  One  of  the  most  renowned  seats  of  alchemic  industry 
was  Bagdad  while  it  was  the  seat  of  the  caliphate.  An  exten- 
sive commerce  was  at  that  period  carried  on  between  Arabia  and 
China.  In  the  eighth  century  embassies  were  interchanged  be- 
tween the  caliphs  and  the  emperors.  Colonies  of  Arabs  were 
established  in  the  seaports  of  the  Empire ;  and  the  grave  of  a 
cousin  of  Mahomet  remains  at  Canton  as  a  monument  of  that 
early  intercourse. 

2.  The  objects  of  pursuit  were  in  both  schools  identical,  and 
in  either  case  twofold — immortality  and  gold. 

In  Europe  the  former  was  the  less  prominent  because  the  peo- 
ple, being  in  possession  of  Christianity,  had  a  sufficiently  vivid 
faith  in  a  future  life  to  satisfy  their  instinctive  longings  without 
having  recourse  to  questionable  arts. 

3.  In  either  school  there  were  two  elixirs,  the  greater  and  the 
less,  and  the  properties  ascribed  to  them  corresponded  very 
closely. 

4.  The  principles  underlying  both  systems  are  identical  in.  the 
composite  nature  of  the  metals,  and  their  vegetation  from  a  sem- 
inal germ.    Indeed,  the  characters  tsing,  ^|,  for  the  germ,  and  tai, 
|fl,  for  the  matrix,  which  constantly  occur  in  the  writings  of 
Chinese  alchemists,  might  be  taken  for  the  translation  of  terms 
in  the  vocabulary  of  the  Western  school,  did  not  their  higher  an- 
tiquity forbid  the  hypothesis. 

5.  The  ends  in  view  being  the  same,  the  means  by  which 
they  were  pursued  were  nearly  identical ;  mercury  and  lead  (to 
which  sulphur  was  tertiary)  being  as  conspicuous  in  the  labora- 
tories of  the  East  as  mercury  and  sulphur  were  in  those  of  the 
West.     It  is  of  less  significance  to  add  that  many  other  sub- 


190  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

stances  were  common  to  both  schools  than  it  is  to  note  the  re- 
markable coincidence  that  in  Chinese  as  in  European  alchemy 
the  names  of  the  principal  reagents  are  employed  in  a  mystical 
sense.* 

6.  Both  schools,  or   at  least   individuals  in  both,  held   the 
strange  doctrine  of  a  cycle  of  changes,  in  the  course  of  which 
the  precious  metals  revert  to  their  original  elements. 

7.  Both  systems  were  closely  interwoven  with  astrology. 

8.  Both  led  to  the  practice  of  magical  arts  and  unbounded 
charlatanism. 

9.  Both  dealt  in  language  of  equal  extravagance ;  and  the  style 
of  European  alchemists,  so  unlike  the  sobriety  of  thought  char- 
acteristic of  the  Western  mind,  would,  if  considered  alone,  furnish 
ground  for  a  probable  conjecture  that  their  science  must  have 
had  its  origin  in  the  fervid  fancy  of  an  Oriental  people,  f 

In  conclusion,  granting  that  the  leading  objects  of  alchemical 
pursuit  are  such  as  might  have  suggested  themselves  to  the  hu- 
man mind  in  any  country,  as  it  felt  its  way  towards  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  forces  of  nature,  yet  the  similarity  of  the  circum- 
stances with  which  they  are  found  associated  in  the  West  and 
the  East  forbids  the  supposition  of  an  independent  origin.  Set- 
ting aside  as  untenable  the  claims  of  Europe  and  of  Western 
Asia,  we  regard  alchemy  as  unquestionably  a  product  of  the  re- 

*  Robert  Boyle  (quoted  in  Nature,  January,  1877)  is  unsparing  in  his  de- 
nunciation of  "  those  sooty  empirics,  who  have  their  eyes  darkened  and 
their  brains  troubled  with  the  smoke  of  their  furnaces ;  and  who  are  wont 
to  evince  their  salt,  sulphur,  and  mercury  (to  which  they  give  the  canting 
title  of  hypostatical  principles)  to  be  the  true  principle  of  things." 

f  The  whimsical  idea  of  the  homunculus,  which  was  so  prominent  in  the 
works  of  the  later  alchemists  of  the  West,  and  which  plays  such  a  conspic- 
uous role  in  the  second  part  of  Goethe's  Faust,  is  one  of  which  I  can  find 
no  vestige  in  the  records  of  Eastern  alchemy.  In  the  writings  of  the  latter 
school,  however,  the  power  of  synthetic  creation  is  asserted  boldly  enough, 
and  the  idea  of  producing  the  homunculus,  i.  e.  of  creating  a  human  being  by 
an  artificial  process,  is,  in  fact,  only  a  particular  application  of  the  principle. 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  191 

moter  East.  To  the  honor  of  being  its  birthplace,  India  and 
China  are  rival  claimants.  The  pretensions  of  the  former*  we 
are  not  in  a  position  to  estimate  by  direct  investigation  ;  but 
they  appear  to  us  to  be  excluded  by  the  proposition,  of  which 
there  is  abundant  proof,  that  the  alchemy  of  China  is  not  an  ex- 
otic, but  a  genuine  product  of  the  soil  of  that  country. 

As  before  remarked,  it  springs  from  Taoism,  an  indigenous  re- 
ligion ;  and  shows  itself  in  clearly  defined  outlines,  if  not  in  full 
maturity,  at  a  time  when  there  was  little  or  no  intercourse  with 
India.  Had  it  appeared  some  centuries  later  simultaneously 
with  the  introduction  of  Buddhism,  there  might  have  been  more 
reason  to  look  on  it  as  a  foreign  importation.  In  polar  antag- 
onism with  the  idealistic  philosophy  of  Buddha,  its  fundamental 
tenets  are  not  only  found  in  the  ancient  manual  of  Lao-tsze,f 

*  That  much-lamented  sinologue,  the  late  Mr.  Mayers,  favors  the  claim  of 
India,  though,  alas  !  it  is  no  longer  possible  to  question  him  as  to  the  grounds 
of  his  opinion.  In  his  essay  on  the  origin  of  gunpowder,  he  says,  "  It  is  at 
least  allowable  to  surmise  that  those  Brahmin  chemists  who,  it  is  almost 
proved,  inaugurated  tJie  search  after  the  philosopher's  stone  and  the  elixir 
vitce  may  have  been  the  first  to  discover  what  secret  forces  are  developed 
in  the  fiery  union  between  sulphur  and  saltpetre." 

t  The  famous  poet  £|  Jg  J^,  Pailotien,  in  a  well-known  stanza,  as- 
serts that  the  extravagances  of  alchemy  are  not  to  be  found  there  : 


if       m       ^      -m       =t      !7C 
;£      3      tt      ft      tf     It 


Yet  the  thoughtful  reader  cannot  fail  to  discover  its  latent  principles,  es- 
pecially the  effect  of  discipline  in  securing  an  ascendency  over  matter,  and 
the  protean  power  of  transmutation  hidden  in  the  forces  of  nature.  The  al- 
chemists all  claim  Lao-tsze  as  a  lineal  ancestor,  though  they  derive  their  or- 
igin from  a  remoter  source.  Those  who  desire  to  study  the  relations  of  Chi- 
nese alchemy  to  primitive  Taoism  may,  however  familiar  with  the  original, 
consult  with  advantage  an  excellent  translation  of  the  Tao-teh-king, 
j£f£  fj|  £jf  ,  by  Dr.  John  Chalmers,  of  Canton.  » 


192  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

they  are  distinctly  traceable  in  the  oldest  of  the  Confucian 
classics. 

In  the  Yihking,  the  diagrams  of  which  are  referred  to  Fuhi, 
B.C.  2800,  while  the  text  dates  from  Wenwang,  B.C.  1150, 
and  the  commentary  from  Confucius,  B.C.  500,  we  discover  at 
length  what  appears  to  us  the  true  source  of  those  prolific  ideas 
which  prepared  the  way  for  our  modern  chemistry.  Its  name, 
The  Book  of  Changes,  is  suggestive ;  and  we  find  throughout 
its  contents  the  vague  idea  of  change  replaced  by  the  more  def- 
inite one  of  "  transformation,"  the  key-word  of  alchemy. 

In  the  very  first  section,  Wenwang  descants  on  the  "  changes 
and  transmutations  of  the  creative  principle ;"  and  Confucius,  in 
several  chapters  of  his  commentary,  grows  eloquent  over  the 
same  theme.  "  How  great,"  he  exclaims,  "  is  change !  How 
wonderful  is  change  \  When  heaven  and  earth  were  formed, 
change  was  throned  in  their  midst ;  and  should  change  cease 
to  take  place,  heaven  and  earth  would  soon  cease  to  exist." 
"  The  diagrams,"  he  says  again,  "  comprehend  the  profoundest 
secrets  of  the  universe ;  and  the  power  of  exciting  the  various 
motions  of  the  universe  depends  on  their  explanation :  the  pow- 
er to  effect  transmutation  depends  on  the  understanding  of  the 
diagrams  of  changes."  Here,  in  a  word,  is  the  leading  idea  of 
the  Yihking  ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  general  object  of  Chi- 
nese students  of  alchemy.  Indeed,  so  thoroughly  are  their 
works  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  that  venerable  epitome  of  prim- 
itive science  that  it  is  impossible  to  mistake  the  source  from 
which  they  derive  their  inspiration.  The  Taoists,  without  a  dis- 
senting voice,  recognize  it  as  the  first  book  in  the  canon  of  their 
sect;  and  the  Tyrant  of  Ts'in,  a  zealous  votary  of  alchemy, 
spared  the  Yihking  from  the  flames  to  which  he  consigned  all 
the  other  writings  of  Confucius  and  his  disciples.* 


*  The  language  of  the  above  citations  from  the  Book  of  Changes  is  taken, 
with  some  alterations,  from  the  version  of  Canon  McClatchie,  to  which  the 


ALCHEMY    IN    CHINA.  193 

AVe  have  therefore  no  hesitation  in  affirming  that  ALCHEMY 

IS  INDIGENOUS  TO  CHINA  AND  COEVAL  WITH  THE  DAWN  OF  LET- 
TERS. 

uninitiated  reader  is  here  referred.  Those  who  feel  inclined  to  go  deeper 
into  the  question  of  the  influence  of  that  cabalistic  work  on  the  develop- 
ment of  Taoism,  and  especially  on  alchemy,  cannot  do  better  than  to  read 
the  ^§  JgJ  fe? ,  Tsan-tung-chi,  a  work  of  the  second  century,  for  an  account 
of  which  see  Wylie's  Notes  on  Chinese  Literature,  p.  172. 

9 


194  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE* 

A  PROFESSOR  of  Chinese  in  America  is  reported  to  have  said 
that  "  in  the  Chinese  language  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  florid 
style  or  a  beautiful  style.  Style  is  not  taken  into  consideration. 
It  is  in  writing  the  language  that  skill  is  displayed;  and  the 
man  that  executes  the  characters  with  dexterity  and  ingenuity  is 
the  one  that  understands  the  language." 

Though  somewhat  unexpected  as  coming  from  the  chair  of  a 
professor,  this  opinion  is  not  novel.  It  expresses  but  too  truly 
the  estimate  in  which  the  literature  of  China  has  been  generally 
held  by  the  learned  world. 

The  value  of  Chinese  records  is  fully  conceded.  The  great 
antiquity  of  the  people ;  their  accurate  system  of  chronology ; 
their  habit  of  appealing  to  history  as  the  only  tribunal  before 
which  they  can  arraign  their  sovereigns ;  and  especially  their 
practice  of  noting  as  a  prodigy  every  strange  phenomenon  that 
occurs  in  any  department  of  nature — all  conspire  to  render  their 
annals  an  inexhaustible  mine  of  curious  and  useful  information. 
Add  that  these  annals  are  not  restricted  to  what  is  known  as  the 
history  of  the  Empire,  but  that  one  or  more  such  works  may 
be  found  recording  in  minute  detail  whatever  has  been  thought 
interesting  or  instructive  in  the  history  of  every  department  and 
district,  and  we  have  a  mass  of  historical  literature  that  stands 
without  a  parallel  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

It  is  in  these  that  our  savans  may  find,  extending  back  in  un- 
broken series  for  thousands  of  years,  notices  of  eclipses,  comets, 

*  From  the  New-Englander,  April,  1872. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE.      195 

star-showers,  aerolites,  droughts,  floods,  earthquakes,  etc.,  as  well 
as  a  comparatively  faithful  account  of  the  rise  and  fortunes  of 
the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  human  family. 

But,  while  admitting  that  it  is  worth  while  to  encounter  all 
the  toil  of  a  difficult  language  in  order  to  gain  access  to  such  a 
field  of  research,  who  ever  dreams  that  the  Chinese  language  con- 
tains anything  else  to  repay  the  labor  of  acquisition  ?  Who  ever 
imagines  that  in  pursuing  his  favorite  game,  instead  of  travers- 
ing deserts  and  jungles,  he  will  find  himself  walking  among  for- 
ests filled  with  the  songs  of  strange  birds  and  perfumed  with  the 
fragrance  of  unknown  flowers,  while  ever  and  anon  he  is  ravished 
by  the  view  of  some  landscape  of  surpassing  beauty  ?  As  soon 
would  the  student  of  literary  art  expect  to  find  the  graces  of  dic- 
tion among  the  hieratic  inscriptions  of  Egypt,  or  the  arrow-head- 
ed records  of  Assyria,  as  to  meet  them  on  pages  that  bristle  with 
the  ideographic  symbols  of  China.  It  is  with  a  view  to  correct- 
ing such  prevalent  impressions  that  this  paper  is  written.  In 
attempting  this,  however,  I  do  not  propose  a  disquisition  on  the 
value  of  Chinese  literature  in  general,  nor  commit  myself  to  the 
task  of  elucidating  the  principles  of  its  rhetoric  and  grammar; 
but  limit  myself  rather  to  the  single  topic  of  style,  and  more 
particularly  the  style  of  its  prose  composition. 

This  is  a  subject  which,  I  am  aware,  it  will  not  be  easy  to 
discuss  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  intelligible  or  inter- 
esting to  those  who  are  unacquainted  with  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. Style  is  a  volatile  quality,  which  escapes  in  the  process 
of  transfusion ;  and  illustrations  of  style,  however  carefully  ren- 
dered, are  at  best  but  as  dried  plants  and  stuffed  animals  com- 
pared with  living  nature.  Chinese,  moreover,  being  from  our 
idiom  the  most  remote  of  all  languages,  suffers  most  in  the  proc- 
ess of  rendering.  I  fear,  therefore,  that  the  best  versions  I 
may  be  able  to  offer  will  only  have  the  effect  of  confirming  the 
impressions  which  it  is  my  object  to  combat.  That  such  im- 
pressions are  erroneous  ought  to  be  apparent  from  the  mere  con- 


196  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

sideration  of  the  antiquity  and  extent  of  the  Chinese  literature. 
For,  to  suppose  that  a  great  people  have  been  engaged  from  a 
time  anterior  to  the  rise  of  any  other  living  language  in  build- 
ing up  a  literature,  unequalled  in  amount,  which  contains  noth- 
ing to  gratify  the  taste  or  feed  the  imagination,  is  it  not  to  sup- 
pose its  authors  destitute  of  the  attributes  of  our  common  hu- 
manity ?  Are  we  to  believe  that  the  bees  of  China  are  so  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  other  countries  that  they  construct  their 
curious  cells  from  a  mere  love  of  labor,  without  ever  depositing 
there  the  sweets  on  which  they  are  wont  to  feed  ? 

It  is  not  always  true  that  external  decoration  implies  internal 
finish  or  furniture ;  still,  we  may  assert  that  it  would  be  impos- 
sible that  the  taste  which  the  Chinese  display  in  the  embellish- 
ment of  their  handwriting  and  letter-press  should  not  find  its 
counterpart  in  the  refinements  of  style. 

They  literally  worship  their  letters.  When  letters  were  in- 
vented, they  say,  heaven  rejoiced  and  hell  trembled.  Not  for 
any  consideration  will  they  tread  on  a  piece  of  lettered  paper; 
and  to  foster  this  reverence,  literary  associations  employ  agents 
to  go  about  the  streets,  collect  waste  paper,  and  burn  it  on  a 
kind  of  altar  with  the  solemnity  of  a  sacrifice.  They  execute 
their  characters  with  the  painter's  brush,  and  rank  writing  as 
the  very  highest  of  the  fine  arts.  They  decorate  their  dwellings 
and  the  temples  of  their  gods  with  ornamental  inscriptions ; 
and  exercise  their  ingenuity  in  varying  both  chirography  and 
orthography  in  a  hundred  fantastic  ways.  We  may  well  ex- 
cuse them  for  this  almost  idolatrous  admiration  for  the  greatest 
gift  of  their  ancestors,  for  there  is  no  other  language  on  earth 
whose  written  characters  approach  the  Chinese  in  their  adapta- 
tion to  pictorial  effect. 

Yet  all  this  exaggerated  attention  to  the  mechanical  art  of 
writing  is  but  an  index  of  the  ardor  with  which  Chinese  scholars 
devote  themselves  to  the  graces  of  composition. 

Their  style  is  as  varied  as  their  chirography,  and  as  much 


REMARKS  OX  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE.      197 

more  elaborate  than  that  of  other  nations.  If  they  spend  years 
in  learning  to  write,  where  others  give  a  few  weeks  or  months 
to  the  acquisition  of  that  accomplishment,. it  is  equally  true  that, 
while  in  other  countries  the  student  acquires  a  style  of  compo- 
sition almost  by  accident,  those  of  China  make  it  the  earnest 
study  of  half  a  lifetime. 

While,  in  the  lower  examinations,  elegance  of  mechanical 
execution,  joined  to  a  fair  proportion  of  other  merits,  is  sure  to 
achieve  success,  in  competition  for  the  higher  degrees  the  essays 
are  copied  by  official  clerks  before  they  meet  the  eye  of  the 
examiner ;  style  is  everything,  and  handwriting  nothing.  Even 
the  matter  of  the  essay  is  of  little  consequence  in  comparison 
with  the  form  in  which  it  is  presented.  This  is  perceived  and 
lamented  by  the  more  intelligent  among  the  Chinese  them- 
selves. They  often  contrast  the  hollow  glitter  of  the  style  of 
the  present  day  with  the  solid  simplicity  of  the  ancients ;  and 
denounce  the  art  of  producing  the  standard  wen-chang,  or  pol- 
ished essay,  as  no  less  mechanical  than  that  of  ornamental 
penmanship.  The  writer  has  heard  Ch'ung-hau,  who  himself 
wields  an  elegant  pen,  speak  of  the  stress  which  the  literary 
tribunals  lay  on  the  superficial  amenities  of  style  as  a  "clever 
contrivance  adopted  by  a  former  dynasty  to  prevent  the  literati 
from  thinking  too  much."  * 

Still,  however  sensible  to  its  defects,  Chinese  scholars,  without 
exception,  glory  in  the  extent  and  high  refinement  of  their  na- 
tional literature.  "  We  yield  to  you  the  palm  of  science,"  one 
of  them  once  said  to  me,  after  a  discussion  on  their  notions  of 
nature  and  its  forces ;  but  he  added,  "  You,  of  course,  will  not 
deny  to  us  the  meed  of  letters." 

The  Chinese  language  is  not  so  ill  adapted  to  purposes  of 
rhetorical  embellishment  as  might  be  inferred  from  its  primitive 
structure.  Totally  destitute  of  inflection — its  substantives  with- 

*  The  use  of  wen-chang  as  an  official  test  is  ascribed  to  Wang-au-shih,  of 
the  Sung  dynasty,  about  1050. 


198  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

out  declension,  its  adjectives  without  comparison,  and  its  verbs 
without  conjugation — it  seems  at  first  view  "sans  everything" 
that  ought  to  belong  to  a  cultivated  tongue.  Bound,  moreover, 
to  a  strict  order  of  collocation,  which  its  other  deficiencies  make 
a  necessity,  it  would  seem  to  be  a  clumsy  instrument  for 
thought  and  expression.  Nor  do  I  deny  that  it  is  so  in  com- 
parison with  the  leading  languages  of  the  West ;  but  it  is  a 
marvel  how  fine  a  polish  Chinese  scholars  have  made  it  receive, 
and  what  dexterity  they  acquire  in  the  use  of  it.  It  possesses, 
too,  some  compensating  qualities.  Its  monosyllabic  form  gives 
it  the  advantage  of  concentrated  energy ;  and  if  the  value  of  its 
words  must  be  fixed  by  their  position,  like  numerals  in  a  col- 
umn of  figures,  or  mandarins  on  an  occasion  of  state  cere- 
mony, it  makes  amends  for  this  inconvenience  by  admitting 
each  character  to  do  duty  in  all  the  principal  parts  of  speech. 
In  English,  we  find  it  to  be  an  element  of  strength  to  be  able  to 
convert  many  of  our  nouns  into  verbs.  In  Chinese,  the  inter- 
change is  all  but  universal ;  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  how  much 
this  circumstance  must  contribute  to  variety  and  vigor  of  ex- 
pression, as  well  as  to  economy  of  resources. 

The  advice  which  Han-yu  gives  as  to  the  treatment  of  the 
Buddhist  priesthood  is  jin  ch'i  jin  lu  ch'i  chit,  kwo  ch'i  shu  ; 
literally,  man  their  men,  house  their  temples,  fire  their  books — an 
expression  of  which  all  but  the-  last  clause  is  as  unintelligible  as 
the  original  Chinese.  To  the  Chinese  reader  it  means  "  burn 
their  books,  make  laity  of  their  priests,  and  dwelling-houses  of 
their  sacred  places;"  and  in  its  native  form  it  is  as  elegant  as 
it  is  terse  and  forcible. 

Before  all  things,  a  Chinese  loves  conciseness.  This  taste  he 
has  inherited  from  his  forefathers  of  forty  centuries  ago,  who, 
having  but  a  scanty  stock  of  rude  emblems,  were  compelled  to 
practise  economy.  The  complexity  of  the  characters  and  the 
labor  of  writing  confirmed  the  taste ;  so  that  though  the  press- 
ure of  poverty  is  now  removed,  the  scholar  of  the  present  day, 


REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE.      199 

in  regard  to  the  expenditure  of  ink,  continues  to  be  as  parsimo- 
nious as  his  ancestors.  While  we  construct  our  sentences  so  as 
to  guard  against  the  possibility  of  mistake,  he  is  satisfied  with 
giving  the  reader  a  hint  of  his  meaning.  Our  style  is  a  ferry- 
boat that  carries  the  reader  over  without  danger  or  effort  on  his 
part ;  his  is  only  a  succession  of  stepping-stones  which  test  the 
agility  of  the  passenger  in  leaping  from  one  to  another. 

The  Chinese  writer  is  not  ignorant  of  the  Horatian  canon, 
that  in  "  striving  after  brevity  he  becomes  obscure ;"  but  with 
him  obscurity  is  a  less  fault  than  redundancy.  Accordingly,  in 
Chinese,  those  latent  ideas  to  which  a  French  writer  has  lately 
drawn  attention  play  an  important  part.*  In  return  for  a  few 
hints,  the  reader  himself  supplies  all  the  links  that  are  necessary 
for  the  continuity  of  thought.  This  intense  brevity  is  better 
adapted  to  a  language  which  is  addressed  to  the  eye  than  it 
would  be  to  one  which  is  expected  to  be  equally  intelligible  to 
the  ear.  Light  is  quicker  than  sound.  Segnius  irritant  animos 
demissa  per  aurem. 

Next  to  conciseness,  or  perhaps  in  preference  to  it,  the  Chi- 
nese writer  is  bound  to  keep  in  view  the  law  of  symmetry.  He 
loves  a  kind  of  parallelism ;  but  it  is  not  that  of  the  Hebrew 
poets,  whose  tautology  he  abhors.  It  may  consist  of  a  simile; 
but  more  frequently  it  merely  amounts  to  the  expression  of  cor- 
related ideas  in  nicely  corresponding  phrases.  Every  sentence 
is  balanced  with  the  utmost  precision;  every  word  having  its 
proper  counterpoise,  and  the  whole  composition  moving  on 
with  the  measured  tread  of  a  troop  of  soldiers. 

*  To  say  that  latent  ideas  form  an  essential,  often  a  principal,  part  of  hu- 
man speech  is  as  much  a  parodox,  and  yet  as  true,  as  to  affirm  that  in  read- 
ing we  depend  on  the  absence  of  light,  and  that  the  letters  are  precisely 
what  we  do  not  see.  In  case  of  an  inscription  lit  up  by  an  electric  current, 
the  metallic  letters,  though  necessary  to  convey  the  fluid,  remain  invisible, 
and  we  see  only  the  illuminated  intervals.  The  greater  the  interstices  con- 
sistent with  the  passage  of  the  spark,  the  more  brilliant  the  effects. 


200  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Dr.  Johnson's  famous  parallel  between  Pope  and  Dryden,  and 
the  studied  antitheses  of  Lord  Macaulay,  are  quite  in  accordance 
with  the  taste  of  the  Chinese.  When  they  meet  with  such  a 
passage  in  a  foreign  book,  they  usually  exclaim,  "  This  writer 
knows  something  of  the  art  of  composition."  And  where,  in 
addition  to  a  superfluity  of  words,  they  find,  as  they  often  do,  a 
neglect  of  their  cardinal  principle,  they  do  not  fail  to  express 
their  disgust. 

A  difficulty  in  rendering  the  Christian  Scriptures  is  that  the 
translator  is  not  at  liberty  to  measure  off  his  periods  according 
to  the  canons  of  Chinese  taste ;  and  he  not  unfrequently  gives 
unnecessary  offence  by  retaining  all  the  circumstances  of  gender, 
number,  and  tense  where  the  sense  does  not  require  them,  and 
where  the  genius  of  the  Chinese  language  and  the  rules  of  Chi- 
nese rhetoric  alike  reject  them.  In  this  respect,  the  earlier 
translations  were  particularly  faulty;  and  of  the  more  recent 
versions,  one  at  least  (that  of  the  Delegates)  is  distinguished  for 
classical  taste. 

In  such  a  task,  the  distinction  between  the  Dolmetscher  and 
the  Uebersetzer  which  Schleiermacher  has  so  clearly  drawn  should 
always  be  kept  in  view.  For,  difficult  as  is  the  task  of  translat- 
ing out  of  a  foreign  language,  that  of  translation  into  it  is  still 
more  so;  and  still  more  essential  is  it  that  the  translator  be 
thoroughly  imbued  with  its  spirit.  He  must  himself  be  in  a 
manner  naturalized,  in  order  that  his  literary  offspring  may  en- 
joy the  privileges  of  citizenship. 

The  bane  of  Chinese  style  is  a  servile  imitation  of  antiquity. 
This  not  only  confines  the  writer  within  a  narrow  circle  of 
threadbare  thoughts ;  it  has  the  effect  of  disfiguring  modern  lit- 
erature by  spurious  ornaments  borrowed  from  the  ancients. 
The  authors  of  the  Thirteen  Classics  are  canonized.  Infallible  in 
letters  as  in  doctrine,  every  expression  which  they  have  employ- 
ed becomes  a  model,  or  rather,  I  should  say,  a  portion  of  the  cur- 
rent vocabulary.  But,  like  the  waters  of  the  King  and  Wei,  the 


REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE.      XOl 

diverse  elements  refuse  to  mingle,  giving  to  the  most  admired 
composition  a  heterogeneous  aspect  which  mars  its  beauty  in 
our  eyes  as  much  as  it  enhances  it  in  those  of  the  Chinese.  A 
premium  is  thus  placed  on  pedantry,  and  fetters  are  imposed  on 
the  feet  of  genius.  The  peculiar  dialect  which  we  sometimes 
hear  from  the  pulpit,  made  up  of  fragments  of  the  sacred  text 
skilfully  incorporated  with  the  language  of  every-day  life,  may 
serve  as  an  illustration  of  this  singular  compound. 

In  spite  of  this  imitation  of  antiquity,  they  are,  age  after  age, 
insensibly  drifting  away  from  their  standard.  A  law  of  move- 
ment seems  to  be  impressed  on  all  things,  which  even  the  Chi- 
nese are  unable  to  resist.  By  consequence,  each  century  in  their 
long  history,  or,  more  properly,  each  dynasty,  has  formed  a  style 
of  its  own.  The  authors  of  the  Chau,  Han,  Tang,  and  Sung  pe- 
riods are  broadly  discriminated. 

China  abounds  in  literary  adventurers  of  the  stamp  of  Con- 
stantine  Simonides,  and  the  prevalent  antiquity-worship  affords 
them  encouragement;  but  happily  she  has  her  critics  too,  as 
acute  as  Aristarchus  of  old. 

The  great  schools  of  religious  philosophy  are  also  strongly 
differentiated  in  their  style  of  expression.  The  Confucian,  deal- 
ing with  the  things  of  common  life,  aims  at  perspicuity.  The 
Tauist,  occupied  with  magic  and  mystery,  veils  his  thoughts  in 
symbols  and  far-fetched  metaphors.  The  Buddhist,  to  the  ob- 
scurity inseparable  from  the  imported  metaphysics  of  India, 
adds  an  opaque  medium  by  the  constant  use  of  Sanscrit  phrases 
which  are  ill  understood.  Subdivisions  of  these  great  schools 
have  likewise  their  peculiarities  of  style.  Of  these,  however, 
I  shall  not  speak,  but  hasten  to  indicate  certain  species  of 
composition,  each  of  which  is  characterized  by  a  style  of  its 
own. 

In  no  country  are  private  correspondence,  official  despatches, 
and  didactic  and  narrative  writings  distinguished  by  more 
marked  peculiarities. 

9* 


202  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

In  China,  the  style  of  epistolary  intercourse,  instead  of  ap- 
proaching, as  with  us,  to  that  of  familiar  conversation,  is  singu- 
larly stiff  and  affected.  Whatever  the  subject,  it  is  ushered  in 
by  a  formal  parade  of  set  phrases,  and  finished  off  by  a  conclu- 
sion equally  stereotyped  and  unmeaning.  Form  dominates  ev- 
erything in  China.  It  is  seldom  that  a  letter  flows  freely  from 
the  heart  and  pen  even  of  an  able  writer ;  and  as  for  the  less  ed- 
ucated, though  quite  capable  of  expressing  their  own  thoughts 
in  their  own  way,  they  never  think  of  such  a  thing  as  throwing 
off  the  constraint  of  prescribed  forms.  It  is  amusing  to  see 
how  carefully  one  who  hears  of  the  death  of  a  relative  culls  from 
the  letter-book  a  form  exactly  suited  to  the  degree  of  his  afflic- 
tion. If  the  Chinese  wrote  love-letters  (which  they  never  do), 
they  would  all  employ  the  same  honeyed  phrases ;  or,  like  Fal- 
staff  in  the  Merry  Wives,  address  the  same  epistle  to  all  the 
different  objects  of  their  admiration. 

By  way  of  sample,  here  is  a  "  note  of  congratulation  on  the 
birthday  of  a  friend  :" 

"  The  Book  of  History  lauds  the  five  kinds  of  happiness,  and 
the  Book  of  Odes  makes  nse  of  the  nine  similes.  Both  extol 
the  honors  of  old  age.  Rejoicing  at  the  anniversary  of  your  ad- 
vent, I  utter  the  prayer  of  Hwa-f ung ;  and,  by  way  of  recording 
my  tally  in  the  seaside  cottage,  I  lay  my  tribute  at  your  feet,  by 
retaining  the  whole  of  which  you  will  shed  lustre  on  him  who 
offers  it." 

In  this  short  note  we  have  five  classic  allusions,  two  of  which 
require  a  word  of  explanation.  The  prayer  of  Hwa-fung  was 
for  the  Emperor  Yau,  that  he  might  be  blessed  with  a  happy 
old  age  and  numerous  posterity.  The  "  tally  in  the  seaside  cot- 
tage "  refers  to  a  legend  in  which  one  of  the  genii,  when  asked 
his  age,  replied  that  he  "  could  not  reckon  it  by  years ;  but  as 
often  as  the  azure  sea  became  a  field  for  the  planting  of  mul- 
berry groves  he  was  accustomed  to  note  the  event  by  depositing 
a  tally.  Those  tallies  now  filled  ten  chambers  of  his  dwelling." 


REMARKS  ON  THE  STYLE  OF  CHINESE  PROSE.      203 

The  reply  to  the  foregoing  van  as  follows : 

"  My  trifling  life  has  passed  away  in  vanity,  unmarked  by  a 
single  trait  of  excellence.  On  my  birthday  especially  this  fills 
me  with  shame.  How  dare  I,  then,  accept  your  congratulatory 
gifts  ?  I  beg  to  decline  them,  and,  prostrate,  pray  for  indulgence." 

The  official  correspondence  and  state-papers  of  the  Chinese 
are,  for  the  most  part,  dignified,  clear,  and  free  from  those  pedan- 
tic allusions  with  which  they  love  to  adorn  their  other  writings. 
Whoever  has  read,  even  in  the  form  of  a  translation,  the  memo- 
rials on  the  opium  trade  laid  before  the  Emperor  Tau-kwang,  or 
the  papers  of  Commissioner  Lin  on  the  same  subject,  cannot  have 
failed  to  be  struck  with  their  manifest  ability.  Some  of  them 
are  eloquent  in  style  and  masterly  in  argument.  Imperial  edicts 
are  generally  well  written ;  but  those  of  the  Emperor  Yung-ching 
are  of  such  conspicuous  merit  that  they  are  collected  in  a  series 
of  volumes  and  studied  as  models  of  composition. 

The  didactic  style,  whether  that  of  commentaries  on  the  clas- 
sic texts  or  of  treatises  on  science,  morals,  and  practical  arts,  is 
always  formed  in  accordance  with  the  maxim  of  Confucius,  Tsze 
tah  erh  ye,  "Enough  if  you  are  clear."  Such  writings  are  as 
lucid  as  the  nature  of  the  subject,  the  genius  of  the  language, 
and  the  brain  of  the  author  will  admit.  The  commentaries  on 
the  classics  are  admirable  specimens  of  textual  exposition. 

The  narrative  style  ranges  from  the  gravity  of  history  to  the 
description  of  scenery  and  humorous  anecdote.  Its  ideal  is  the 
combination  of  the  graphic  with  simplicity.  Of  the  historical 
writings  of  the  Chinese,  so  far  as  their  style  is  concerned,  noth- 
ing more  can  be  said  than  that  they  are  simple  and  perspicuous. 
Interesting  they  are  not;  for  their  bondage  to  the  annal  and 
journal  form  has  prevented  their  giving  us  comprehensive  ta- 
bleaux ;  while  the  idea  of  a  philosophy  of  history  has  never 
dawned  on  their  minds.  In  descriptions  of  scenery  the  Chinese 
excel.  They  have  an  eye  for  the  picturesque  in  nature;  and 
nature  throws  her  varied  charms  over  the  pages  of  their  litera- 


204  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

tare  with  a  profusion  unknown  among  the  pagan  nations  of  the 
West.  Chinese  writers  are  particularly  fond  of  relating  inci- 
dents that  are  susceptible  of  a  practical  application.  Of  this 
allow  me  to  furnish  one  or  two  illustrations : 

"  Confucius  was  passing  the  foot  of  the  Tai-shan  when  he 
heard  a  woman  weeping  beside  a  new-made  grave.  There  was 
something  so  sad  in  the  tones  of  her  voice  that  the  sage  leaned 
his  head  on  his  hand  and  listened.  Then  sending  Tsz'-lu  (one 
of  his  disciples),  he  said  to  her,  '  Madam,  you  weep  as  though 
you  were  loaded  with  many  sorrows.'  She  replied, '  What  you 
say  is  true.  First,  my  husband's  brother  was  devoured  by  a 
tiger,  then  my  husband  was  killed,  and  now  my  son  has  been 
eaten.'  '  But  why  do  you  not  leave  this  fatal  spot  ?'  '  Because,' 
said  the  woman,  'here  among  the  mountains  there  are  no  op- 
pressive magistrates.'  ''  Mark  that,  my  children,'  said  the  sage, 
addressing  his  disciples;  'oppressive  magistrates  are  dreaded 
more  than  tigers.' " 

This  is  from  Tan-kung,  of  the  Chau  dynasty.  Liu-tsung-yuen, 
of  the  Tang  period,  has  a  similar  narrative  in  which  a  poisonous 
reptile  takes  the  place  of  the  tiger.  A  poor  man  was  employed 
to  capture  the  spotted  snake  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  had 
his  taxes  remitted  on  condition  of  supplying  the  Imperial  col- 
lege of  physicians  with  two  every  year.  The  author  expressing 
his  sympathy  for  his  perilous  occupation,  the  man  replied,  "  '  My 
grandfather  died  in  this  way,  my  father  also,  and  I,  during  the 
twelve  years  in  which  I  have  been  so  engaged,  have  more  than 
once  been  near  dying  by  the  bite  of  serpents.'  As  he  uttered 
this  with  a  very  sorrowful  expression  of  countenance, '  Do  you 
wish,'  said  I,  'that  I  should  speak  to  the  magistrates  and  have 
you  released  from  this  hard  service?'  His  look  became  more 
sorrowful,  and,  bursting  into  tears,  he  exclaimed,  '  If  you  pity 
me,  allow  me,  I  pray  you,  to  pursue  my  present  occupation  ;  for 
be  assured  that  my  lot,  hard  as  it  is,  is  by  no  means  so  pitiable 
as  that  of  those  who  suffer  the  exactions  of  tax-gatherers.' " 


REMARKS    ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    PROSE.  205 

I  add  a  specimen,  in  the  same  vein,  from  Liu-ki,  a  writer  of 
the  Ming  period,  who  flourished  no  more  than  five  hundred  years 
ago.  "  I  saw,"  he  says,  "  oranges  exposed  on  a  fruit-stand  in 
midsummer,  and  sold  at  a  fabulous  price.  They  looked  fresh 
and  tempting,  and  I  bought  one.  On  breaking  it  open,  a  puff 
of  something  like  smoke  filled  my  mouth  and  nose.  Turning 
to  the  seller,  I  demanded,  '  Why  do  you  sell  such  fruit  ?  It  is 
fit  for  nothing  but  to  offer  to  the  gods  or  to  set  before  strangers. 
What  a  shame  !  What  a  disgraceful  cheat !'  '  Well  were  it,' 
replied  the  fruit-seller,  '  if  my  oranges  were  the  only  shams.' 
And  he  went  on  to  show  how  we  have  sham  soldiers  in  the  field, 
sham  statesmen  in  the  cabinet,  and  shams  everywhere.  I  went 
away  silently,  musing  whether  this  fruit-seller  might  not  be,  after 
all,  a  philosopher  who  had  taken  to  selling  rotten  oranges  in  or- 
der to  have  a  text  from  which  to  preach  on  the  subject  of 
shams." 

The  last  two  pieces,  though  separated  from  it  by  a  space  of 
from  twelve  to  sixteen  hundred  years,  are  evidently  modelled 
after  the  first.  I  have  quoted  them  to  show  that  Chinese  writ- 
ers are  not  always  servile  in  their  imitation,  or  timid  in  denounc- 
ing the  corruptions  of  their  government. 

Another  kind  of  style  is  that  of  the  wen-chang,  or  polished 
essay — a  brief  treatise  on  any  subject,  constructed  according  to 
fixed  rules,  and  limited  to  six  or  eight  hundred  words.  In  our 
own  literature  it  answers  to  the  short  papers  such  as  those  of 
the  Spectator  and  Rambler,  which  were  so  much  in  vogue  in  the 
last  century — invariably  ushered  in  by  a  classic  motto,  and  ex- 
pected to  be  a  model  of  fine  writing. 

The  production  of  these  is  the  leading  test  of  literary  ability. 
The  schoolboy  writes  wen-chang  as  soon  as  he  is  able  to  con- 
strue the  native  classics ;  and  the  gray-haired  competitor  for  the 
doctorate  in  the  examinations  at  the  capital  is  still  found  writ- 
ing wen-chang.  In  all  the  world  there  is  no  kind  of  literature 
produced  in  equal  quantity — excepting,  perhaps,  sermons.  Nor 


206  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

is  their  prodigious  quantity  their  only  point  of  resemblance  to 
the  productions  of  the  Western  pulpit.  They  always  have  a  text 
from  the  sacred  books,  which  they  analyze  in  a  most  artificial 
manner,  and  uniformly  reduce  to  eight  heads.  They  aim  at 
nothing  beyond  exposition,  on  the  principle  that  the  moderns 
can  do  nothing  more  than  unfold  the  germs  of  ancient  wisdom  ; 
originality  is  renounced,  and,  as  already  intimated,  their  chief 
adornment  consists  in  the  artful  interweaving  of  sacred  and 
modern  phraseology.  Like  the  inlaid  wares  of  the  Japanese  or 
the  mosaic  pictures  of  the  West,  the  more  numerous  and  minute 
their  component  parts,  the  more  are  these  compositions  admired. 
Of  no  practical  utility  except  as  a  mental  gymnastic,  the  style  of 
these  essays  exerts  an  influence  through  the  whole  range  of  lit- 
erature. Indeed,  the  term  which  is  commonly  employed  to 
cover  the  whole  field  of  belles-lettres  is  no  other  than  wen-chang. 

Here  is  an  opening  paragraph  of  an  essay  which  took  the  first 
honor  in  a  recent  examination  for  the  doctorate : 

Subject  —  Good-faith  and  Dignity.  "When  we  begin,  we 
should  look  to  the  end.  Good-faith  and  dignity  of  carriage 
should  therefore  be  objects  of  our  care.  By  faith  we  mean  that 
our  acts  should  respond  to  our  promise ;  and  by  dignity  that  our 
bearing  should  be  such  as  to  repel  any  approach  towards  insolent 
familiarity.  This  is  only  obtained  by  cherishing  a  sense  of  right, 
cultivating  a  regard  for  propriety,  and  at  the  same  time  main- 
taining a  sympathy  for  our  fellow-men.  In  this  earthly  pilgrim- 
age, what  we  most  desire  is  to  escape  the  blame  of  being  untrue. 
We  choose  our  words  with  care,  for  fear  we  should  be  untrue  to 
our  fellows.  We  choose  our  actions  with  care,  for  fear  we  should 
be  untrue  to  ourselves.  And  we  choose  our  companions  with 
care,  lest  we  should  prove  unfaithful  to  our  friends  or  they 
should  prove  unfaithful  to  us.  By  so  doing  we  can  fulfil  our 
obligations,  maintain  our  dignity  of  character,  and  yet  preserve 
inviolate  our  social  attachments.  Within  we  shall  have  a  heart 
that  feels  its  self-imposed  engagements  as  much  as  if  it  were 


REMARKS    ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    PROSE.  207 

bound  by  the  stipulations  of  a  solemn  covenant ;  while  without 
we  shall  wear  an  aspect  that  will  command  the  respect  of  those 
who  approach  us." 

"Enough,"  you  will  say;  "those  thoughts  are  all  very  com- 
monplace. It  is  of  no  use  to  translate  any  further."  And  truly  ; 
for  a  translation  can  never  do  justice  to  the  subtle  qualities 
which  caused  this  performance  to  be  crowned  among  seven 
thousand  competitors.  The  delicate  sutures  which  blend  its  va- 
rious elements  into  an  harmonious  whole  must,  of  course,  like  the 
wavy  lines  of  a  Damascus  blade,  disappear  when  cast  into  the 
crucible  of  the  translator. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  style  of  schools,  periods,  and 
different  provinces  in  the  empire  of  letters,  it  follows  that,  not- 
withstanding their  propensity  for  imitation,  Chinese  writers  must 
be  as  strongly  individualized  as  those  of  other  countries.  If 
gifted  with  original  genius,  they  form  a  style  of  their  own ;  if 
not,  they  produce  in  new  and  undesigned  combinations  the  traits 
of  earlier  authors  by  whom  they  have  been  most  deeply  im- 
pressed. Confucius  professed  to  be  an  imitator,  but  he  was 
eminently  original:  Direct,  practical,  and  comprehensive,  his 
thoughts  are  expressed  in  language  at  once  concise  and  rhyth- 
mical— resembling  as  much  as  anything  else  those  choice  lines 
of  Shakespeare  which  by  their  combined  felicity  of  idea  and 
expression  have  become  transformed  into  popular  proverbs. 
Whether,  like  the  Hindoo  guru,  he  threw  them  into  this  form 
as  the  text  for  his  daily  discourse,  or  whether  they  were  reduced 
by  his  disciples,  it  is  not  in  all  cases  easy  to  determine.  But 
certain  it  is  that,  stripped  of  their  attractive  dress,  whatever  their 
intrinsic  merit,  they  never  could  have  attained  such  universal 
currency.  The  teachings  of  Confucius  owe  as  much  to  style  as 
those  of  Mahomet.  The  extent  to  which  style  was  studied  in 
his  time  we  may  infer  from  the  account  he  gives  us  of  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  elegant  state-papers  of  the  principality  of 
Cheng  were  produced.  They  were  the  work  of  four  men  with 


208  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

long,  strange  names.  One  "  drew  out  a  rough  draft,"  a  second 
"  sifted  the  arguments,"  another  "  added  rhetorical  embellish- 
ments," and  the  fourth  finished  them  by  "  polishing  off  the  pe- 
riods." 

Lau-tse,  the  contemporary  of  Confucius,  though  somewhat  his 
senior,  left  his  instructions  to  posterity  in  "  five  thousand  words," 
cast  in  a  semi-poetical  mould.  Obscure  and  paradoxical  like 
Ileraclitus  of  Ephesus,  surnamed  the  Dark  (a  writer  with  whom 
it  would  not  be  difficult  to  trace  other  points  of  analogy  besides 
their  common  partiality  for  enigma),  his  dark  pages  are  illu- 
mined by  many  a  flash  of  far-reaching  light.  Each  of  these 
great  masters  impressed  his  style  on  the  school  which  he  founded. 

Mencius  is  Confucius  with  less  dogmatism  and  more  vehe- 
mence ;  while  the  wild  fancy  of  Chwang-tse  reproduces  the  char- 
acteristics of  Lau-tse  in  exaggerated  proportions. 

With  both,  the  current  of  their  diction  flows  like  a  river,  but 
in  each  case  it  wears  the  complexion  of  its  distant  source. 

As  another  example  of  a  contrast  in  manner,  I  may  adduce 
two  historians  of  the  Chau  period.  Kung-yang-kau  and  Tso- 
chew-ming  both  confine  themselves  to  the  r6le  of  expositors, 
taking  the  Confucian  annals  as  their  text ;  but  the  first  often 
commences  with  a  minute  analysis  of  the  text,  while  the  other 
proceeds  at  once  to  a  narrative  of  facts.  The  former,  for  in- 
stance, thus  expounds  the  heading  of  a  chapter : 

Text — "  First  year,  spring,  royal  first  moon.'1'1  "  Why  the 
first  year?  Because  it  was  the  commencement  of  a  new  reign. 
Why  does  he  mention  spring  ?  Because  the  year  began  at  that 
season.  Why,  in  speaking  of  the  month,  does  he  prefix  the 
word  royal  ?  To  indicate  that  it  was  fixed  by  the  Imperial  cal- 
endar. WThy  refer  to  the  Imperial  calendar  ?  To  show  that  all 
the  states  are  united  under  one  sovereign,"  etc. 

From  Tso-chew-ming  I  cite  a  passage  which,  whether  it  do  or 
do  not  exhibit  any  other  peculiarity,  will  at  least  show  the  ab- 
sence of  interrogation-marks. 


REMARKS    ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    PROSE.  209 

Text — "  The  Prince  of  Cheng  conquers  Toan  at  Yien"  Pre- 
mising that  the  belligerents  were  brothers;  that  their  mother 
had  abetted  the  rebellion  of  Toan  the  younger;  and  that  the 
Prince,  pronouncing  against  her  a  sentence  of  banishment,  had 
taken  a  solemn  oath  never  to  see  her  again  until  they  should 
both  be  under  the  ground,  the  historian  continues,  "  The  Prince 
soon  repented  of  his  hasty  oath.  The  Governor  of  Ying-ku 
heard  it,  and  came  with  a  present.  The  Prince  detained  him  to 
dine.  Ying-ku  put  aside  a  portion  of  the  meats.  The  Prince 
inquired  the  reason.  Said  Ying-ku,  '  They  are  for  my  mother, 
who  has  never  tasted  such  royal  dainties.'  '  You  have  a  moth- 
er, then,'  said  the  Prince;  'alas!  I  have  none.'  He  then  told 
him  of  his  oath,  at  the  same  time  informing  him  of  his  repent- 
ance. 

" '  Why  need  your  Majesty  be  troubled  on  that  account  ?"  ex- 
claimed Ying-ku.  '  If  you  will  only  make  a  subterranean  cham- 
ber with  two  doors,  and  meet  there,  who  will  say  that  you  have 
not  kept  your  oath  ?' 

"The  Prince  took  the  counsel,  and,  meeting  his  mother  beneath 
the  ground,  they  became  mother  and  son  as  before.  How  per- 
fect the  piety  of  Ying-ku,  who  devised  the  plan !" 

The  great  masters  of  style  are  a  thousand  years  later  than 
these  last;  and  then  we  find  philosophers,  poets,  and  historians 
in  such  constellations  as  to  make  the  dynasties  of  Tang  and 
Sung  a  Golden  Age  for  Chinese  letters.  Then  flourished  such 
writers  as  Han-yu,  surnamed  the  Prince  of  Literature ;  Li-po,  in 
whom  the  planet  Venus  was  believed  to  be  incarnate ;  the  three 
Su,  father  and  sons;  and  a  host  of  others  whose  light  has  not 
yet  reached  the  Western  shores,  and  whose  names  it  would  be 
tedious  to  recount.  Their  names,  musical  enough  in  the  tones 
of  their  native  land,  are  harsh  to  Occidental  ears.  What  a  pity 
they  have  not  all  been  clothed  in  graceful  Latin,  like  those  of 
Confucius  and  Mencius!  These  sages,  if  they  owe  to  their  style 
in  a  great  degree  their  popularity  at  home,  are  almost  equally 


210  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

indebted  for  their  fame  abroad  to  the  classical  terminations  of 
their  names.  Name  is  fame  in  more  than  one  sense,  and  more 
than  one  language — in  Chinese  as  in  Hebrew ;  and  it  is  obvious 
that  in  the  Western  world  no  amount  of  merit  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  confer  celebrity  on  a  man  bearing  the  name  of  Kloong- 
foo-tsze! 

I  refrain  from  further  extracts.  For  reasons  already  given,  no 
translation  can  do  justice  to  the  style  of  a  Chinese  writer ;  and 
a  volume,  instead  of  a  brief  essay,  would  be  required  to  give  an 
approximate  idea  of  the  other  qualities  of  what  the  Chinese 
describe  as  their  elegant  literature. 

To  their  poets  we  have  made  no  reference,  as  that  would  open 
up  a  distinct  field  of  inquiry.  It  is  on  their  poetry  that  they 
especially  pique  themselves ;  but,  as  I  think,  with  mistaken 
judgment.  For  while  their  prose- writers,  like  those  of  France, 
are  unsurpassed  in  felicity  of  style,  their  poetry,  like  that  of 
France,  is  stiff  and  constrained.  Like  their  own"  women,  their 
poetical  muses  have  cramped  feet  and  no  wings. 

For  variety  in  prose  composition,  the  nature  of  the  language 
affords  a  boundless  scope.  For,  not  to  speak  of  local  dialects, 
the  language  of  scholars,  or  the  written  language,  ranges  in  its 
choice  of  expressions  from  the  familiar  patois  up  to  the  most 
archaic  forms.  In  China  nothing  becomes  obsolete;  and  a 
writer  is  thus  enabled  to  pitch  his  composition,  at  option,  on  a 
high  or  low  key,  and  to  carry  it  through  consistently.  There 
are,  for  example,  three  sets  of  personal  pronouns  that  correspond 
to  as  many  grades  of  style ;  while  there  are  other  styles  in 
which  the  personal  pronoun  is  dispensed  with,  and  substantives 
employed  instead. 

Founded  on  pictorial  representation,  the  language  is,  in  many 
of  its  features,  highly  poetical,  the  strange  beauties  with  which 
it  charms  the  fancy  at  every  step  suggesting  a  ramble  among 
the  gardens  of  the  sea -nymphs.  Nor  is  it  a  dead  language, 
though  in  its  written  form  no  longer  generally  spoken.  It  con- 


REMARKS    ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    PROSE.  211 

tains  " thoughts  that  breathe,  and  words  that  burn" — writers 
whom  the  student  will  gladly  acknowledge  as  worthy  compeers 
of  the  most  admired  authors  of  the  ancient  West.  I  say  "  an- 
cient," for  China  is  essentially  ancient.  She  is  not  yet  modern- 
ized, and  finds  fitter  parallels  in  pagan  antiquity  than  in  modern 
Christendom. 

The  time,  I  trust,  is  not  far  distant  when  her  language  will 
find  a  place  in  all  our  principal  seats  of  learning,  and  when  her 
classic  writers  will  be  known  and  appreciated. 


CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 


ON  THE   STYLE    OF   CHINESE  EPISTOLARY   COMPO- 
SITION.* 

IN  no  other  language  is  the  style  of  private  correspondence  so 
widely  separated  from  that  of  official  or  public  documents  as  in 
the  Chinese.  The  latter,  simple  and  direct  in  expression,  es- 
chews ornament,  and  aims  chiefly  at  clearness  and  force;  the 
former,  artificial  to  the  last  degree,  bristles  with  trite  allusions 
which  are  rather  pedantic  than  elegant. 

With  us,  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  things,  the  reverse  is  not 
far  from  the  truth.  It  is  the  official  despatch  that  is  cast  in  iron 
moulds ;  and  the  familiar  letter  is  left  free  to  take  any  shape  the 
easy  play  of  thought  and  feeling  may  impress  upon  it.  Authors 
accordingly  sometimes  choose  to  throw  their  compositions  into 
the  convenient  form  of  epistles  when  they  wish  to  invest  them 
with  the  double  charm  of  clearness  and  vivacity.  By  employ- 
ing the  form  of  letters,  Pascal  imparted  to  polemic  discussion 
the  grace  and  humor  of  the  comic  drama;  while  Swift  and  Ju- 
nius  availed  themselves  of  the  same  weapon  in  their  terrible  at- 
tacks on  the  government. 

Not  so  the  Chinese :  wh'ile  necessity  leads  to  the  discussion 
of  grave  topics  in  the  form  of  letters,  and  the  teachings  of  some 
of  their  ancient  philosophers  were  communicated  "in  the  way  of 
correspondence,  among  them  no  modern  author  ever  thinks  of 
throwing  his  ideas  into  such  a  shape.  Neither  does  any  author 
treat  a  grave  subject  under  the  form  of  the  modern  prize  essay ; 

*  Read  before  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society  on 
the  8th  December,  1876. 


ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    EPISTOLARY    COMPOSITION.    213 

and  thoughtful  men  denounce  the  regulation  essay  as  utterly 
useless ;  but  they  never  denounce  the  conventional  style  of  let- 
ter-writing, though  both  have  a  family  likeness.  The  reason  is 
that  the  letter  of  friendship  or  business  is  a  social  necessity,  and 
the  literary  ornament  with  which  it  is  tricked  out  is  deemed  es- 
sential to  save  it  from  vulgarity. 

In  friendly  correspondence  the  opening  paragraphs  are  always 
consecrated  to  the  expression  of  high-flown  sentiments,  real  or 
assumed,  and  not  unfrequently  the  falsetto  pitch  of  the  exordi- 
um is  painfully  sustained  to  the  very  close.  Nothing  is  more 
offensive  to  our  taste,  or  less  calculated  to  encourage  the  labor 
of  acquisition.  If  a  letter  contains  any  serious  business,  the  for- 
eign reader,  if  he  does  not,  as  in  most  cases,  rely  on  a  native 
teacher  for  explanation,  finds  that  he  can  arrive  at  it  by  a  process 
of  elimination,  i.  e.  by  leaving  out  of  account  all  the  unintelligi- 
ble rhetoric.  But  this  is  not  merely  unscholarly;  it  limits  the 
use  of  correspondence,  and  shuts  out  the  student  (he  does  not 
deserve  the  name  of  student  if  willing  to  be  shut  out)  from  a 
department  of  literature  which  more  than  any  other  presents  us 
with  pictures  of  individual  character  and  social  life. 

The  student  who  desires  to  enter  this  field  will  find  numerous 
private  collections  of  more  or  less  celebrity  soliciting  his  atten- 
tion. If  any  of  them  were  from  the  pens  of  gifted  women ; 
and  if  the  canons  of  Chinese  taste  (for  the  fault  is  not  in  the 
language)  permitted  them,  like  their  sisters  of  the  West,  to 
write  as  they  talk,  he  might,  even  in  this  department,  verify  the 
quaint  old  maxim,  "  The  sweetness  of  the  lips  increaseth  knowl- 
edge." But,  alas !  there  is  no  Sevigne  who,  by  her  brilliant 
gossip,  can  shed  the  dews  of  immortal  youth  over  the  ephemeral 
intrigues  of  a  court,  and  by  her  wit  give  a  value  to  things  that 
are  worthless,  as  amber  does  to  the  insects  which  it  embalms ; 
there  is  no  Wortley  who  chats  with  equal  charm  of  literature 
and  love ;  no  Lady  Duff  Gordon,  who,  by  her  genius  and  enter- 
prise, puts  us  in  love  with  boat-life  and  Bedouins. 


214  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

The  paths  of  epistolary  literature,  where  the  choicest  flowers 
are  dropped  from  female  hands,  are  in  China  all  untrodden  by 
female  feet;  and  a  reason  gravely  given  for  withholding  from 
women  the  key  of  knowledge  is  that  men  are  afraid  they  will 
learn  to  write  letters.  It  is  not  nature,  but  man,  that  is  ungener- 
ous to  the  daughters  of  the  East. 

"  Knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page, 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll ; 
Chill  jealousy  repressed  their  noble  rage, 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul." 

Nor,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  there  any  such  indemnity  in  store 
for  our  student  as  the  epistles  of  a  moralizing  Seneca;  or  the 
correspondence  of  a  malignant  and  intriguing  Walpole,  which 
lifts  the  veil  from  the  mysteries  of  contemporary  politics,  and 
from  the  writer's  own  bosom,  so  that  Macaulay  ingeniously 
compares  the  flavor  of  the  letters  of  the  great  minister  to  that 
of  pates  defoie  gras,  because  derived  from  a  disease  of  the  liver 
in  the  animal  that  produced  them.  But  as  some  of  our  most 
eminent  poets,  such  as  Dryden,  Gray,  and  Cowper,  have  left  be- 
hind them  letters  that  are  preserved  as  models  of  elegance  in 
which  fancy  and  feeling  are  no  less  happily  blended  than  in  their 
poetical  works,  so  we  find  that  in  China  the  list  of  distinguished 
letter -writers  is  headed  by  the  names  of  poets,  showing  that 
they  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  musa  pedestris  as  well  as  of  her 
winged  sisters. 

The  earliest  collection  of  letters,  or  at  least  the  most  famous 
of  those  that  are  accepted  as  models  of  epistolary  style,  came 
from  the  pens  of  two  celebrated  poets  of  the  Sung  dynasty,  Su- 
tung-p'o,  fjsfc  J|£  ^,  and  Hwang-t'ing-kien,  Jjl£  /j£  ^.  Under 
the  joint  name  of  Su-Hwang-ch'i-tuh,  ffi£  j£  /^  J£§,  though  not 
properly  a  Briefwechsel,  or  correspondence  between  the  two  au- 
thors, it  has  ever  since  the  battle  of  Hastings  given  law  to  this 
species  of  composition. 

The  stream  of  time,  like  that  which  floated  the  borrowed  axe 


ON    THE    STYLE  OF   CHINESE   EPISTOLARY   COMPOSITION.     215 

of  the  prophet,  usually  carries  down  the  weightier  matters,  and 
deposits  the  less  important  as  sediment ;  yet  in  this  instance 
we  have  reason  to  regret  that,  like  natural  rivers,  it  has  only 
brought  down  to  us  the  lighter  material  on  its  surface.  Both 
writers  held  high  offices,  and  one  of  them  was  especially  hon- 
ored at  the  Imperial  Court ;  but  their  letters  have  little  to  do 
with  State  policy ;  and  the  selection  has  obviously  been  made  on 
the  principle  that  if  one  of  their  merits  is  in  the  elegance  of 
their  form,  another  ought  to  be  in  the  absence  of  facts.  Still, 
even  these  shining  husks,  if  carefully  sifted,  will  be  found  to 
yield  some  grains  of  valuable  information. 

A  book  of  letters  of  more  modern  date,  and  scarcely  inferior 
in  reputation,  is  the  Ctii-tuh  of  Siao-ts'ang,  jj>  ^  |]|  /jf^  /-^  ftfl , 
or  of  Sui-yuen,  |§g  HJ  ft  |}j|,  as  it  is  variously  styled.  The  au- 
thor, Yuen-mei,  ^  $£,  a  native  of  Che-kiang,  won  a  seat  in  the 
Imperial  Academy  in  the  reign  of  Kien-lung ;  and  declining  of- 
fice, passed  his  life  at  Nanking,  chiefly  engaged  in  scholastic  pur- 
suits, boasting  that  for  thirty  years  he  never  appeared  at  court. 

Known  mainly  as  a  professor  of  belles-lettres,  with  pupils  dis- 
persed over  several  provinces,  instead  of  collected  into  one  lect- 
ure-room, and  communicating  by  post  instead  of  viva  voce,  this, 
worthy  man  has  not  merely  left  models  of  composition,  but  set 
an  example,  both  as  scholar  and  instructor,  which  is  much  ad- 
mired though  little  followed. 

A  poet  of  refined  taste,  and  not  without  talent,  it  is  interesting 
to  know  that  he  gave  instruction  in  the  art  of  poetry  to  numer- 
ous ladies  of  high  family  and  culture,  making,  from  time  to  time, 
the  circuit  of  the  cities  where  they  resided — a  fact  the  rarity  of' 
which  rather  supports  than  invalidates  the  view  above  given  of 
the  deficiencies  of  female  education. 

There  are  numerous  works  passing  under  the  general  name  of 
Ch'i-tuh,  which  were  prepared  expressly  for  form-books,  and  will 
ropay  perusal  for  that  purpose.  Of  these  I  may  mention  the 
Yen-chi-mutan,j$  jfljf  tifa  •fy,Hai-shang-hung-ni,jfe  j 


216  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

and  Liu-tsing-tsi,  ^  ~^  4t?  ;  but  they  have  not  the  merit  of  a 
history. 

It  is,  however,  with  a  view  to  drawing  attention  to  a  more  re- 
cent collection  that  this  article  is  written. 

The  Tsze-yuen  Ctii-tuh,ffi  ^  j^  Hf|,  published  at  Peking  a 
few  years  ago  in  four  thin  volumes,  consists  of  a  selection  from 
the  letters  of  Liu-kia-chu,  §1J  *jfc  fjf . 

This  is  a  name  which,  being  unknown,  carries  no  weight ;  and 
our  author,  like  Hawthorne  in  one  of  his  earlier  works,  might 

'  O 

speak  of  himself  as  enjoying  the  distinction  of  being  one  of  the 
obscurest  men  of  letters  in  all  China.  A  native  of  Hunan,  he 
passed  many  years  in  the  Yamen  of  the  Governor  of  Canton ;  a 
representative  of  that  nameless  but  influential  class  who  transact  the 
business  while  their  superiors  enjoy  the  honors  of  official  station. 

During  this  period  he  wrote,  he  tells  us,  heaps  of  papers  higher 
than  his  head,  among  which  one  might  play  hide-and-seek  in 
more  senses  than  one.  Most  of  them  were,  of  course,  sent  forth 
in  the  name  of  others,  and  the  writer  facetiously  compares  him- 
self to  a  milliner  who  prepares  the  clothing  for  a  bride,  or  a  go- 
between  who  arranges  for  her  nuptials.  Of  these  he  gives  us 
none,  unless,  indexed,  by  surreptitiously  changing  their  address 
and  adapting  them  to  his  own. use. 

The  most  of  his  papers  bear  unmistakable  marks  of  having 
been  culled  from  his  private  portfolio ;  affording  such  incidental 
glimpses  of  life  and  manners  that  one  is  compelled  to  accept 
them  as  a  genuine  record — a  portion  of  the  writer's  autobiogra- 
phy. This  gives  the  work  an  element  of  interest  of  no  mean 
order,  and  a  value  of  its  own,  as  a  mirror  held  up  to  the  face  of 
Chinese  life  by  the  hand  of  a  native.  So  frank,  indeed,  are  its 
disclosures,  so  little  care  is  taken  to  draw  a  veil  over  things  that 
are  deemed  discreditable,  that  one  might  almost  regard  the  work 
as  belonging  to  the  category  of  "  confessions " — originated  by 
St.  Augustine,  and  rendered  popular  by  Rousseau. 

As  to  the  literary  merits  of  the  performance,  it  is  sufficient  to 


ON  THE   STYLE   OF   CHINESE   EPISTOLARY   COMPOSITION.     217 

cite  the  names  of  the  two  sponsors  under  whose  patronage  the 
author  comes  before  the  public — Kwo  Sung-tao,  Minister  to 
England,  and  Wang  K'ai-tai,  the  late  enlightened  governor  of 
the  Province  of  Fohkien — each  of  them  having  filled  the  post 
of  Governor  of  Canton,  and  employed  Liu-kia-chu  as  a  confiden- 
tial secretary. 

Other  great  names  are  invoked  in  a  long  list  of  laudatory 
notices ;  and  some  that  we  meet  with  incidentally  in  the  course 
of  the  correspondence,  such  as  Tseng  Kwo-fan,  Tsiang  Ih-li,  Li 
Hung-chang,  and  Liu  Ch'ang-yiu,  the  present  viceroy  of  Yunnan 
and  Kweichau,  impart  to  it  an  air  of  historical  truth  that  is 
much  in  its  favor. 

Without  pausing  longer  to  discourse  about  the  book,  let  us 
open  its  pages  and  see  what  we  shall  find  there. 

To  begin,  we  shall  find  a  meteoric  shower  of  allusions.  This 
is  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  this  species  of  writing ; 
and  its  primary  object  is  to  hide  the  nakedness  of  commonplace. 
Employed  in  excess  or  handled  clumsily,  it  aggravates  the  evil 
by  exposing  the  poverty  of  the  writer,  or  substitutes  the  graver 
faults  of  pedantry  and  cant ;  used  with  skill  and  taste,  it  throws 
over  the  page  a  glitter  of  iridescent  hues,  or,  it  may  be,  con- 
tributes largely  to  the  significance  and  force  of  language. 

These  allusions  are  of  various  kinds.  Some  suggest  whole 
chapters  of  history  ;  others  bring  up  the  words  or  actions  of 
real  or  mythical  personages ;  while  others  still,  by  a  single  word 
or  phrase,  cast  a  beam  of  light  on  some  poetical  tableau,  which 
brings  its  entire  effect  to  bear  on  the  subject  in  hand.  For  in- 
stance, when  Dry  den  says  of  Thais  that, 

"  Like  another  Helen,  she  fired  another  Troy," 

what  a  crowd  of  teeming  associations  he  condenses  into  the 
space  of  a  single  line !  How  much  is  expressed  by  such  brief 
phrases  as  "  a  Barmecide  feast,"  "  a  Bellerophon  letter,"  "  a 
Judas  kiss !" 

10 


2f8  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

The  Chinese  language — I  do  not  say  literature — abounds  in 
such ;  and  no  one  can  be  said  to  understand  the  language  who 
is  not  in  some  decree  familiar  with  them.  Then  there  are  curt 

O 

allusions  of  a  purely  literary  kind — catch-words  which  suggest 
any  one  of  the  three  hundred  classic  odes,  or  refer  to  thousands 
of  well-known  passages  in  later  literature.  To  these  we  may  add 
a  vocabulary  of  metaphorical  words  and  phrases,  the  use  of  which 
is  de  rigeur  in  a  certain  style  which  makes  it  a  point  of  taste  not 
to  call  things  by  their  right  names.  Thus  the  poet  or  the  elegant 
letter-writer  never  speaks  of  copper  cash,  but  calls  them  "  green 
beetles ;"  a  sheet  of  paper  he  calls  "  a  flowery  scroll ;"  an  epistle 
is  "  a  wild-goose."  Husband  and  wife  are  Cliang-sue,  bass  and 
treble ;  K'ang-li,  strength  and  beauty ;  Yuen-yang,  duck  and 
drake ;  and  a  hundred  other  pretty  things,  at  the  poet's  option. 
A  man  is  a  prince  and  his  wife  a  princess ;  his  house  a  palace  and 
his  children  a  phoenix  brood.  To  repay  the  kindness  of  parents  is 
to  emulate  the  stork ;  to  return  a  borrowed  article  is  to  restore  the 
gem ;  and  a  man  of  genius  employed  in  a  work  of  drudgery — as 
Charles  Lamb  in  the  India  Office — is  a  race-horse  in  a  salt-wagon. 

These  are  but  a  few  specimens  of  a  sort  of  dialect  that  has  its 
own  dictionaries  without  number  or  limit ;  and  of  which  every 
reader  of  Chinese  is  under  the  necessity  of  knowing  something, 
if  he  does  not  master  it.  Perhaps  the  best  key  to  it  for  any 
student,  native  or  foreign,  is  a  collection  of  wen-chang,  or  of  well- 
written  letters,  such  as  those  of  our  obscure  friend  Liu-kia-chu. 

In  dictionaries  and  cyclopaedias,  or  in  such  a  useful  hand-book 
as  Mr.  Mayer's  Chinese  Reader's  Manual,  he  will  find  gems  ar- 
ranged as  in  a  mineralogical  cabinet ;  but  in  these  compositions 
he  meets  them  in  their  proper  setting.  The  object  of  such  works 
is  to  aid,  not  to  supersede,  the  reading  of  difficult  authors — as  a 
certain  learned  Dutchman  proposed  to  supersede  Homer  by  pre- 
senting the  Homeric  archaeology  in  a  tabulated  form. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  substratum  of  facts  underlying  the 
gold  and  tinsel  of  which  we  have  been  speaking.  Of  little  im- 


ON  THE   STYLE   OF  CHINESE   EPISTOLARY   COMPOSITION.       219 

portance  in  themselves,  and  not  by  any  means  thick-sown  through 
these  pages,  they  are  still  not  devoid  of  interest  as  illustrations 
of  character,  personal  and  national. 

It  was  from  the  letters  of  Cicero  that  Mr.  Middleton  drew  the 
principal  materials  for  his  admirable  life  of  the  great  Roman 
statesman.  But  even  the  letters  of  Chu-fu-tsze  or  Su-tung-p'o 
would  furnish  scanty  materials  for  a  history  of  their  lives ;  and 
meagre,  indeed,  are  the  outlines  of  biography  which  we  are  able 
to  extract  from  the  sentimental  effusions  of  Liu-kia-chu. 

Our  author  first  drew  his  breath,  and  with  it  what  poetic  in- 
spiration he  possessed,  amidst  the  mountain  scenery  of  Southern 
Hunan,  about  the  middle  of  the  reign  of  Kia-king  (circa  1810). 
Born  in  a  rustic  village  not  far  from  the  city  of  Sin-hwa,  •$$[  -ft, , 
he  came  of  a  family  distinguished  for  scholarship — a  fact  of  which 
he  never  ceases  to  remind  the  reader ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  inherited  talent,  though  his  patrimony  included  little  else. 

Boasting  somewhat  of  his  early  precocity,  he  hints  at  youthful 
dissipations  as  having  proved  fatal  to  his  career  as  a  scholar,  and 
planted  the  seeds  of  unending  regrets.  He  failed — probably  from 
a  defective  chirography,  as  many  a  worthier  man  has  done — to 
win  the  first  or  lowest  degree  in  the  civil-service  examinations ; 
and  about  the  age  of  thirty  he  removed  with,  his  family  to  Can- 
ton, forgetting,  it  seems,  to  liquidate  certain  debts  of  honor. 

Concerned  in  the  conduct  of  a  charity-school,  Liu,  thinking 
that  charity  ought  to  begin  at  home,  "  borrowed  "  a  portion  of 
the  funds  to  meet  his  own  necessities.  Arrived  at  Canton,  he 
learned  with  much  regret  that  the  slight  liberty  he  had  taken 
with  its  capital  was  likely  to  occasion  the  dissolution  of  the 
school.  Against  this  he  protests  with  much  eloquence ;  but  has 
nothing  more  substantial  to  encourage  the  good  work  than 
"  promises  to  pay."  In  this  connection  his  reference  to  himself 
as  a  good  example  of  the  benefits  of  education  is,  to  say  the 
least,  a  little  naive. 

After  this,  we  are  not  surprised  to  find  many  epistles  filled 


220  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

with  complaints  of  poverty.  He  has  work  enough,  but  scant 
remuneration.  Great  men  admire  his  genius,  and  load  him  with 
compliments ;  but,  like  virtue,  which  he  does  not  much  resemble 
in  any  other  respect,  laudatur  et  alget. 

From  one  friend  he  begs  the  loan  of  a  "few  hundred  pieces 
of  gold,"  and  from  another  he  borrows  a  suit  of  decent  apparel. 
Good  models  these  letters  for  one  who  has  much  to  do  in  the 
line  of  begging  or  borrowing ! 

All  this  time  Liu's  family  is  increasing  at  a  rather  alarming 
rate ;  not  that  he  has  any  children  born,  but  from  time  to  time 
he  takes  a  new  beauty  into  his  harem  in  the  hope  that  children 
will  follow.  One  is  presented  to  him  by  a  friend ;  another,  not 
unnaturally,  runs  away,  or,  as  he  euphemistically  terms  it,  "  car- 
ries her  guitar  to  another  door." 

A  correspondent  of  comparatively  severe  morals  expostulates 
with  Liu  on  this  seeming  abandonment  to  a  life  of  sensuality ; 
and  the  latter  replies  by  drawing  an  affecting  picture  of  an  aged 
father  who  cannot  die  in  peace  without  the  joy  of  embracing  a 
grandson ! 

At  length  his  hopes  are  awakened  only  to  meet  with  disap- 
pointment— one  of  his  wives  presenting  him  with  a  daughter. 
The  little  creature  appears  not  to  be  altogether  unwelcome,  and, 
in  fact,  makes  for  herself  a  warm  place  in  her  father's  heart ; 
though  he  frequently  alludes  to  her  in  terms  borrowed  from  one 
of  the  odes  of  which  the  following  couplet  gives  the  leading  idea : 

"  A  girl  is  born ;  in  coarse  cloth  wound, 
With  a  tile  for  a  toy,  let  her  lie  on  the  ground,"  etc. 

The  spell  broken,  another  of  his  ladies  crowns  his  desires  by 
giving  him  a  son,  whose  advent  is  duly  hailed  by  a  flourish  of 
trumpets,  and  further  quotations  from  the  Book  of  Odes : 

"  A  son  is  born ;  on  an  ivory  bed, 
Wrap  him  in  raiment  of  purple  and  red ; 
Gold  and  jewels  for  playthings  bring 
To  the  noble  boy  who  shall  serve  the  king." 


ON  THE   STYLE    OF   CHINESE   EPISTOLARY   COMPOSITION.       221 

In  a  few  months  this  child  of  many  hopes  sickens  ancl  dies. 
The  disconsolate  father  mourns  deeply,  and  fills  many  sheets 
with  melodious  tristia. 

About  this  time  the  doors  of  official  preferment,  before  which 
he  had  been  so  long  waiting  (having  failed  to  find  the  key  in 
his  earlier  youth),  began  slowly  to  open  before  him.  Appointed 
magistrate  of  a  sub-district  in  the  country,  called  Loh-kang,  he 
contrived  to  send  some  one  to  act  in  his  stead  (perhaps  sub- 
letting the  profits  of  the  position),  while  he  remained  at  the 
capital  in  the  midst  of  the  literary  society  which  he  loved  so 
much. 

Another  time,  appointed  to  Kowloon  on  the  main  opposite  to 
Hongkong,  Liu  finds  excuses  for  not  repairing  to  his  post ;  and 
the  governor,  offended  by  his  tardiness,  cancels  the  appointment. 
After  due  penance,  he  is  restored  to  favor  and  offered  another 
post,  such  as  Caesar  himself  would  have  preferred  to  being  the 
second  man  at  Rome.  Taught  by  experience,  he  lost  no  time  in 
installing  himself  in  his  new  yamen.  Its  roof  leaks,  its  walls  are 
crumbling,  and  all  its  apartments  filled  with  rubbish ;  but,  to 
compensate  for  all  this,  it  contains  a  throne,  which,  if  he  had 
read  Milton,  he  might  have  compared  to  that  of  the  "anarch 
old  "  who  ruled  the  realms  of  chaos. 

Here  he  finds  a  new  order  of  talents  called  into  requisition : 
he  has  to  deal  with  facts  instead  of  words,  and  is  evidently 
proud  of  the  success  with  which  he  performs  the  functions  of  a 
judge — favoring  us  with  one  of  his  judgments  as  a  model  of  its 
kind.  It  betrays,  however,  the  fact  that  his  right  hand  has  not 
forgotten  its  cunning;  that  he  continues  to  be.a  rhetorician  in 
spite  of  himself,  and  is  more  at  home  in  reading  a  lecture  than 
in  pronouncing  a  sentence. 

Unique  among  the  rose-water  productions  of  his  epistolary 
pen,  his  report  of  this  lawsuit  reminds  us  that  Liu  has  also 
given  us  a  few  specimens  of  another  species  of  composition. 

In  the  course  of  his  career  he  is  sometimes  assistant  examiner, 


222  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

and  sometimes  appears  in  the  character  of  a  competitor;  not, 
indeed,  in  the  ordinary  examinations,  but  in  those  special  trials 
which  expectant  officers  are  required  to  pass  at  the  provincial 
capital.  On  one  of  these  occasions  Liu's  essays  were  endorsed 
by  the  high  authorities  in  terms  which  placed  them  on  a  level 
with  the  best  productions  of  the  classic  ages. 

These  eulogies  he  not  only  repeats  in  many  of  his  letters,  but 
favors  his  friends  with  copies  of  the  fortunate  papers,  that  they 
may  judge  for  themselves  whether  the  praise  is  merited ;  pleas- 
ing himself  with  the  reflection  that  but  for  the  injustice  of  the 
lower  courts  he  might  long  since  have  worn  the  highest  honors 
of  the  literary  arena. 

Liu's  literary  ability  is  also  duly  recognized  by  a  host  of  junior 
aspirants,  who  solicit  copies  of  his  MSS.,  send  presents  on  his 
fete-days,  and  institute  theatricals  in  his  honor. 

His  moral  character  is  more  doubtful.  A  polygamist  on  prin- 
ciple, he  disclaims  the  virtues  of  an  ascetic  philosopher  in  order 
to  emulate  the  libertinism  of  certain  dissolute  poets.  Had  he, 
indeed,  done  nothing  worse  than  fill  his  own  cage  with  bright- 
winged  songsters,  he  would  have  been  walking  too  closely  in  the 
footsteps  of  saints  and  sages  to  attract  attention.  To  vindicate 
for  himself  the  reputation  of  being  a  free  spirit — one  that  spurns 
what  he  denominates  the  "minor  morals" — he  mingles  occasion- 
ally with  the  "  soiled  doves." 

For  this,  his  best  apology  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  silly 
occupants  of  his  own  dove-cot  are  incapable  of  appreciating  his 
genius ;  while  some  of  these  unappropriated,  like  the  heta3ra3  of 
Greece,  had  their  charms  enhanced  by  the  advantages  of  educa- 
tion. He  gives  us  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  one  of  this  class, 
with  hypocritical  morality  recommending  her  to  take  refuge  in 
a  house  of  religion. 

In  an  epistle  to  another  friend,  he  gives  us  reason  to  suspect 
that  even  the  vestals  of  Buddha  were  not  sacred  in  his  eyes ;  and 
that  with  him  sacrilege  was  necessary  to  give  the  highest  flavor 


ON    THE    STYLE    OF    CHINESE    EPISTOLARY    COMPOSITION.    223 

to  license.  Freely  unfolding  his  inner  life,  and  trenching  often 
on  forbidden  ground,  it  is  something  in  his  favor  that  he  is  al- 
ways elegant  and  never  indecent. 

After  this  account  of  his  morals,  it  would  be  useless  to  inquire 
for  his  religion.  He  says,  indeed,  very  little  on  the  subject.  He 
alludes  to  a  "  Creator  "  more  than  once,  but  in  language  of  studied 
levity,  showing  that  to  him  the  author  of  nature  is  not  a  "liv- 
ing God." 

As  to  outward  observances,  he  conforms  to  popular  usage ;  he 
believes  in  fate,  and,  impatient  to  know  its  decrees,  applies  to  a 
professional  fortune-teller ;  in  all  these  points  only  too  true  a 
type  of  the  average  literati  of  his  country. 

Our  hasty  sketch  may  serve  to  indicate  the  range  and  va- 
riety of  his  correspondence,  which,  with  all  its  finish,  resem- 
bles a  Chinese  garden,  where  artis  est  NATURAM  celare  by 
twisting  flower  and  plant  into  the  grotesque  shape  of  bird  and 
beast. 

The  boundary-line  between  friendly  and  official  correspond- 
ence is  not  easy  to  trace.  It  is  to  the  former  that  we  confine 
ourselves  in  the  present  communication  ;  but  it  will  not  be  amiss 
to  remark  that  much  of  the  best  writing  in  the  Chinese  language 
may  be  found  on  intermediate  ground  between  formal  business 
documents  and  friendly  letters. 

In  this  class  of  compositions  vaguely  described  as  official 
letters,  the  grace  of  the  polished  epistle  is  often  added  to  the 
directness  and  force  of  the  despatch  style — a  happy  combination, 
of  which  some  of  the  best  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the  pub- 
lished correspondence  of  Hu-lin-yeh,  canonized  under  the  title  of 
Hu-wen-cheng-kung ;  and  in  that  of  Ch'en  Wen  Chung-kung, 
who,  having  won  three  times  in  succession  the  first  literary  honor 
of  his  province  and  of  the  Empire,  received  from  that  circum- 
stance the  sobriquet  of  Ch'en  San  Yuen,  ^  H  JC  • 


224  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 


CHINESE  FABLES.* 

THE  student  of  Chinese  inquires  in  vain  for  any  collection  of 
native  fables ;  and  he  feels  their  absence  as  a  personal  inconven- 
ience when  he  recalls  his  obligations  to  ^Esop  and  Phsedrns, 
Lessing  and  La  Fontaine,  for  alleviating  the  toil  of  his  earlier 
studies  in  the  classic  languages  of  ancient  and  modern  Europe. 
This  deficiency  is  the  more  disappointing,  as  the  constant  occur- 
rence of  the  word  pifang  in  our  colloquial  exercises  leads  us  to 
expect  to  find  the  fields  of  literature  thick-sown  with  every  va- 
riety of  similitude.  Parables  and  allegories  are,  indeed,  not  want- 
ing, but  their  congener,  the  fable,  seems  never  to  have  existed, 
or  in  some  mysterious  way  to  have  become  well-nigh  extinct. 

Nor  is  this  last  supposition  a  mere  idle  fancy.  We  turn  up 
from  time  to  time  what  seem  to  be  fossil  fragments  enough  to 
give  it,  to  say  the  least,  as  good  a  foundation  as  some  scientific 
theories  have  to  rest  on.  For  what  are  those  numerous  proverbial 
expressions  drawn  from  the  habits  of  animals  but  the  ghosts,  or 
rather  the  skeletons,  of  vanished  fables.  But  whether  such  orig- 
inals ever  existed,  certain  it  is  that  nothing  is  more  easy  or  natu- 
ral than  to  expand  these  phrases  into  the  full  dimensions  of  the 
proper  apologue. 

Take,  for  instance,  "  the  sheep  in  a  tiger's  skin,"  "  when  the 
hare  dies  the  fox  weeps,"  "  he  who  nurses  a  tiger's  cub  will  rue 
his  kindness,"  etc.  Do  not  these  seem  to  point  back  to  ancient 
fables  as  their  source ;  just  as  we  know  "  the  fox  and  the  grapes," 

*  Written  for  the  Celestial  Empire  in  1871. 


CHINESE    FABLES.  225 

"  the  ass  in  a  lion's  skin,"  and  other  proverbial  expressions  cur- 
rent among  us  were  derived  from  fables  ? 

But  how  did  such  originals,  supposing  them  to  have  existed, 
come  to  be  lost  ?  We  reply,  they  were  either  never  reduced  to 
writing,  or  not  written  in  a  style  adapted  to  the  taste  of  the 
country.  For  ages  past  the  Chinese  have  affected  an  extreme 
sententionsness  in  the  style  of  their  literary  composition.  This 
would  naturally  lead  them  to  extract  the  living  spirit  and  to 
reject  the  cumbrous  form  of  such  fables  as  might  spring  up  in 
the  humbler  walks  of  their  folk-lore.  Thus  they  may  have  had 
their  unknown  Pilpays  and  their  mute,  inglorious  ^Esops. 

At  all  events,  the  defect  of  which  we  are  speaking  was  not 
occasioned,  as  some  would  have  us  infer,  by  a  want  of  imagina- 
tion. For  Chinese  literature,  while  it  contains  nothing  that  rises 

O 

to  the  dignity  of  the  epic  muse,  yet  teems  with  the  productions 
of  a  fertile  fancy — metamorphoses  as  numerous  (if  not  as  ele- 
gant) as  those  of  Ovid;  fairy  tales  more  monstrous  than  Grimm's; 
and  narratives  of  adventure  (generally  accepted  as  sober  history) 
as  strange  as  those  of  Sindbad  or  Gulliver.  It  is,  we  repeat,  a 
question  of  taste  rather  than  talent ;  and  this,  we  think,  is  borne 
out  by  the  reception  which  the  Chinese  gave  to  Mr.  Thorn's  ex- 
cellent translation  of  ^Esop,  a  work  which,  instead  of  finding  its 
way  into  every  household,  is  rarely  to  be  met  with  even  in  the 
stalls  of  a  bookseller.  The  mandarins  suspected  that  wolves  and 
bears  were  masks  for  dangerous  doctrines  and  biting  satire ; 
while  neither  prince  nor  peasant  has  cared  enough  about  the 
production  to  keep  it  alive. 

As  to  talent,  while  we  will  not  assert  that  the  Chinese  could 
have  excelled  in  this  department  of  literature,  there  is  proof,  we 
think,  that  they  are  not  wholly  destitute  of  a  capacity  for  it 
This  will  be  found  in  the  following  fables,  derived  from  various 
sources,  which  we  give  by  way  of  specimen,  hoping  that  our 
readers  will  add  to  the  number  any  that  happen  to  come  under 
their  notice : 

10* 


226  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

1.  The  King  of  Ch'oo  inquiring  with  some  surprise  why  the 
people  of  the  Xorth  were  so  frightened  at  the  approach  of  Chou- 
si-hii,  one  of  his  ministers  replied  as  follows :  "  A  tiger  who  hap- 
pened to  be  preceded  by  a  fox  was  greatly  astonished  to  see  all 
the  animals  running  away  from  the  fox,  little  suspecting  that 
their  terror  was  inspired  by  himself.     It  is  not  Chou,  but  your 
Majesty,  of  whom  the  people  of  the  North  are  in  dread." 

2.  "  I  may  go  out  and  play  without  any  danger  now,"  said  a 
little  mouse  to  its  mother.     "  The  old  cat  has  become  religious ; 
I  see  her  with  her  eyes  shut,  engaged  in  praying  to  Buddha." 

Grimalkin's  devotions,  however,  did  not  prevent  her  seizing 
the  silly  little  creature  as  soon  as  it  ventured  near. 

3.  A  tiger  who  had  never  seen  an  ass  was  terrified  at  the 
sound  of  bis  voice,  and  was  about  to  run  away,  when  the  latter 
turned  his  heels  and  prepared  to  kick. 

"  If  that  is  your  mode  of  attack,"  said  the  tiger,  "  I  know  how 
to  deal  with  you." 

4.  A  tiger  having  clapped  his  paw  on  an  unlucky  monkey,  the 
latter  begged  to  be  released  on  the  score  of  his  insignificance, 
and  promised  to  show  the  tiger  where  he  might  find  a  more  val- 
uable prey.     The  tiger  complied,  and  the  monkey  conducted  him 
to  a  hill-side  where  an  ass  was  feeding — an  animal  which  the 
tiger,  till  then,  had  never  seen. 

"  My  good  brother,"  said  the  ass  to  the  monkey,  "  hitherto 
you  have  always  brought  me  two  tigers,  how  is  it  that  you  have 
only  brought  me  one  to-day  ?" 

Hearing  these  words,  the  tiger  fled  for  his  life.  Thus  a  ready 
wit  may  often  ward  off  great  dangers. 

5.  A  tiger,  finding  a  cat  very  prolific  in  devices  for  catching 
game,  placed  himself  under  her  instruction.     At  length  he  was 
told  there  was  nothing  more  to  be  learned.     "  Have  you,  then, 
taught  me  all  your  tricks?"  he  inquired.     "Yes,"  replied  the 
cat.     "  Then,"  said  the  tiger,  "  you  are  of  no  further  use,  and  so 
I  shall  eat  you."     The  cat,  however,  sprang  lightly  into  the 


CHINESE    FABLES.  227 

branches  of  a  tree,  and  smiled  at  his  disappointment.     She  had 
not  taught  him  all  her  tricks. 

The  Chinese  apply  this  to  their  foreign  instructors  iu  the  art 
of  war,  and  evidently  suspect  that  some  master  secret  is  always 
held  in  reserve. 


228  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 


THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  CHINA.* 

As  link  after  link  is  added  to  that  chain  of  communication 
which  brings  China  nearer  to  us  than  Europe  was  before  the 
rise  of  steam  navigation,  it  is  interesting  to  know  that  a  mental 
awakening  is  taking  place  among  the  people  of  China  by  which 
the  Chinese  mind  will  be  brought  proportionally  nearer  to  our 
own. 

The  announcement  of  this  fact  will  be  received  with  distrust 
by  some  who  are  sceptical  as  to  the  doctrine  of  human  progress. 
It  will  be  questioned  by  others  who  deride  as  visionary  the  ef- 
forts of  Christian  enterprise.  Nor  will  it  be  readily  admitted  by 
that  large  class  who  are  wont  to  regard  the  Chinese  mind  as 
hopelessly  incrusted  with  the  prejudices  of  antiquity. 

Never  have  a  great  people  been  more  misunderstood.  They 
are  denounced  as  stolid,  because  we  are  not  in  possession  of  a 
medium  sufficiently  transparent  to  convey  our  ideas  to  them  or 
transmit  theirs  to  us ;  and  stigmatized  as  barbarians,  because  we 
want  the  breadth  to  comprehend  a  civilization  different  from 
our  own.  They  are  represented  as  servile  imitators,  though  they 
have  borrowed  less  than  any  other  people ;  as  destitute  of  the 
inventive  faculty,  though  the  world  is  indebted  to  them  for  a 
long  catalogue  of  the  most  useful  discoveries ;  and  as  clinging 

*  This  paper  was  originally  delivered  as  an  address  before  the  American 
Oriental  Society,  October,  1868;  and  subsequently  published  in  the  New- 
Englander  quarterly  magazine,  January,  1869.  It  is  reproduced  without 
alteration,  because,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  the  history  of  the  past  twelve 
years  serves  to  confirm  and  verify  the  views  here  given. 


THE    RENAISSANCE   IN    CHINA.  229 

with  unquestioning  tenacity  to  a  heritage  of  traditions,  though 
they  have  passed  through  many  and  profound  changes  in  the 
course  of  their  history. 

They  have  not  been  stationary,  as  generally  supposed,  through 
the  long  past  of  their  national  life.  The  national  mind  has  ad- 
vanced from  age  to  age  with  a  stately  march ;  not,  indeed,  al- 
ways in  a  direct  course,  but  at  each  of  its  great  epochs  record- 
ing, as  we  think,  a  decided  gain ;  like  the  dawn  of  an  arctic 
morning,  in  which  the  first  blush  of  the  eastern  sky  disappears 
for  many  hours,  only  to  be  succeeded  by  a  brighter  glow,  grow- 
ing brighter  yet  after  each  interval  of  darkness  as  the  time  of 
sunrise  approaches. 

The  existence  in  such  a  country  of  such  a  thing  as  a  national 
mind  is  itself  an  evidence  of  a  susceptibility  to  change,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  guarantee  for  the  comparative  stability  of  its 
institutions.  It  proves  that  China  is  not  an  immense  congeries 
of  polyps,  each  encased  in  his  narrow  cell,  a  workshop  and  a 
tomb,  and  all  toiling  on  without  the  stimulus  of  common  sym- 
pathy or  mental  reaction.  It  proves  that  China  is  not,  like  Af- 
rica and  aboriginal  America,  or  even  like  British  India,  an  as- 
semblage of  tribes  with  little  or  no  community  of  feeling.  It  is 
a  unit,  and  through  all  its  members  there  sweeps  the  mighty 
tide  of  a  common  life. 

In  the  progress  of  its  enormous  growth,  it  has  absorbed  many 
a  heterogeneous  element,  which  has  always  been  transformed 
into  its  own  substance  by  an  assimilative  power  that  attests  the 
marvellous  energy  of  the  Chinese  civilization.  It  has,  too,  under- 
gone many  modifications,  in  consequence  of  influences  operating 
ab  extra  as  well  as  from  within ;  and  though  the  process  of 
transmission  has  often  been  slow,  those  influences  have  always 
extended  to  the  whole  body.  Within  the  bounds  of  China 
proper  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  waves  of  Buddhism  or 
Taoism  being  arrested  at  the  confines  of  a  particular  province ; 
nor  is  there  any  district  in  which  the  pulsations  from  the  great 


230  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

heart  of  the  empire  do  not,  by  virtue  of  a  common  language  and 
common  feeling,  meet  with  a  prompt  response. 

Yet  the  existence  of  this  oneness  and  sympathy — this  nation- 
ality of  mind,  which  brings  modifications  on  a  vast  scale  within 
the  range  of  possibility,  necessarily  interposes  an  obstacle  in  the 
way  of  their  speedy  consummation.  Planted  on  the  deep 
foundations  of  antiquity,  extending  over  so  wide  an  area,  antl 
proudly  conscious  of  its  own  greatness,  its  very  inertia  is  opposed 
to  change.  In  China,  accordingly,  great  revolutions,  whether 
political,  religious,  or  intellectual,  have  always  been  slow  of  ac- 
complishment. Compared  with  the  facility  with  which  these 
are  brought  about  in  some  Occidental  countries,  they  resemble 
the  slow  revolution  of  those  huge  planets  on  the  outskirts  of  the 
solar  system,  which  require  more  than  the  period  of  a  human 
life  to  make  the  circuit  of  the  sun,  while  the  little  planet  Mer- 
cury wheels  round  the  centre  once  in  a  few  months. 

The  great  dynastic  changes,  involving  as  they  do  a  period  of 
disintegration  and  another  of  reconstruction,  have  usually  occu- 
pied from  one  to  three  generations ;  while  the  growth  of  those 
grand  revolutions  which  resulted  in  the  ascendency  of  a  religion 
or  a  philosophy  must  be  reckoned  by  centuries. 

A  brief  review  of  some  of  the  more  remarkable  changes  that 
have  occurred  in  the  progress  of  Chinese  civilization  will  enable 
us  better  to  understand  the  nature  of  the  intellectual  movement 
now  going  on. 

To  begin  with  the  development  of  political  ideas.  Instead  of 
being  wedded  to  a  uniform  system  of  despotic  government,  the 
Chinese  have  lived  under  as  many  forms  of  government  as  an- 
cient Rome  or  modern  France.  While  the  Romans  passed  under 
their  kings,  consuls,  and  emperors,  the  Chinese  had  their  tees, 
their  wangs,  and  their  kwangtees.  And  as  France  has  passed 
through  the  various  phases  of  a  feudal  and  centralized  monarchy, 
a  republic,  and  a  military  despotism,  so  China  exhibits  an  equal 
variety  in  the  forms  of  her  civil  government. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  231 

When  the  hand  of  history  first  lifts  the  curtain,  two  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era,  it  discloses  to  us  an  elective  mon- 
archy, in  which  the  voice  of  the  people  was  admitted  to  express 
the  will  of  Heaven.  Thus  Yaou,  the  model  monarch  of  antiquity, 
was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  voice  of  the  nobles,  in  lieu  of 
his  elder  brother,  who  was  set  aside  on  account  of  his  disorderly 
life.  Yaou  in  turn  set  aside  his  own  son,  and  called  on  the 
nobles  to  name  a  successor,  when  Shun  was  chosen.  Again, » 
Shun,  passing  by  an  unworthy  son,  transmitted  the  Imperial 
yellow  to  an  able  minister,  the  great  Yu. 

Yu,  though  a  good  sovereign,  departed  from  these  illustrious 
precedents,  and  incurred  the  censure  of  "converting  the  Empire 
into  a  family  estate."  The  hereditary  principle  became  fixed. 
Branches  of  the  Imperial  family  were  assigned  portions  of  the 
Empire,  and,  their  descendants  succeeding  to  their  principalities, 
the  feudal  system  was  confirmed. 

This,  in  China,  is  the  classical  form  of  government ;  Confu- 
cius himself  compares  the  majesty  of  the  sovereign  to  the  polar 
star,  which  keeps  its  steadfast  place  while  all  the  constellations 
revolve  around  it.  It  prevailed  under  the  dynasty  of  Chow,  when 
the  Classics  were  produced ;  and  a  large  part  of  the  classic  writ- 
ings is  occupied  with  questions  relating  to  the  balance  of  power 
among  the  feudal  lords  and  the  regulation  of  their  relations  to 
the  Emperor.  Transplanted  to  Japan,  it  exists  till  the  present 
day,  where  a  war  among  the  nobles  is  now  exciting  the  attention 
of  the  public.*  But  in  China  it  was  overthrown  completely  two 
thousand  years  ago  by  one  of  the  most  sweeping  revolutions  on 
the  records  of  history. 


*  This  conflict  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the  usurpation  of  the  Shogira, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  Mikado  to  all  his  ancient  rights  and  to  more  than 
his  ancient  power ;  the  great  barons  by  common  consent  surrendering  their 
territorial  sovereignty,  and  converting  their  country  into  a  centralized  em- 
pire, instead  of  a  congeries  of  vassal  states. 


232  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Lucheng,  *  an  ambitious  noble,  sweeping  all  rival  princes 
from  the  chess-board,  dethroned  the  last  degenerate  scions  of  the 
house  of  Chow,  and  proclaimed  himself  under  the  title  of  the 
First  Whangtee.  Finding  that  the  literary  class  were  wedded  to 
feudal  institutions,  he  carried  on  a  relentless  persecution  against 
the  disciples  of  Confucius ;  and,  fearing  that  the  traces  of  them 
contained  in  the  Confucian  books  might  lead  the  people  to  re- 
-  store  the  obliterated  principalities,  he  proceeded  to  destroy,  as 
far  as  possible,  every  vestige  of  classic  literature.  His  object 
was  to  cut  loose  from  the  leading-strings  of  antiquity,  and  to 
inaugurate  a  totally  new  system  in  the  politics  of  the  Empire. 
He  further  signalized  his  reign  by  the  erection  of  that  huge 
barrier  on  the  north  which  to  this  day  continues  to  be  a  won- 
der of  the  world.  It  is  only  just  to  add  that  the  system  of  cen- 
tralized power  which  he  introduced  was  as  firmly  established  as 
the  Great  Wall  itself.  The  very  title  of  Whangtee,  first  assumed 
by  Lucheng,  continues  to  be  that  of  the  emperors  of  China  at 
the  present  day. 

Under  the  dynasty  of  Han,  about  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  a  still  more  important  modification  was  introduced 
into  the  constitution  of  the  Empire — viz.,  a  democratic  element, 
in  virtue  of  which  appointments  to  office  were  not  left  to  the 
caprice  of  the  sovereign  and  his  favorites.  This  consisted  in 
testing  the  capacity  of  candidates  by  a  literary  examination ;  and 
it  operated  so  well  that  it  was  not  only  adopted,  but  greatly  im- 
proved, by  succeeding  dynasties,  and  continues  in  force  at  the 
present  day.  Americans  would  as  soon  surrender  their  ballot-box 
as  the  Chinese  that  noble  system  of  literary  competition  which 
makes  public  office  the  reward  of  scholarship,  and  gives  every 
man  an  opportunity  of  elevating  himself  by  his  own  exertions. 

Nor  are  the  Chinese  less  familiar  with  the  idea  of  change  in 

*  This  name  implies  an  opprobrious  and,  no  doubt,  fictitious  account  of 
the  great  man's  parentage.  I  employ  it  notwithstanding,  because  it  is  that 
which  is  most  frequently  used  by  native  historians. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  233 

the  region  of  religious  thought,  three  systems  of  religion  having 
appeared  on  the  arena  of  the  Empire  and  struggled  for  ascen- 
dency since  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era.  Confu- 
cianism was  persecuted  under  the  dynasty  of  Ts'in ;  and  Taoism 
and  Buddhism,  alternately  persecuting  and  persecuted,  kept  up 
the  conflict  for  ages,  each  in  turn  seating  its  own  disciples  on 
the  throne  of  the  Empire.  The  last  of  these  is  of  foreign  ori- 
gin ;  and  its  universal  prevalence  does  much  to  reconcile  the 
people  to  the  introduction  of  religious  ideas  from  abroad ;  while 
it  stands  forth  as  a  visible  proof  of  the  possibility  of  converting 
the  Chinese  to  a  foreign  creed.  A  leading  statesman*  of  China 
has  recently  made  use  of  this  as  an  argument  that  the  Emperor 
should  not  object  to  the  propagation  of  Christianity.  "  From  the 
time  of  Ts'in  and  Han,"  he  says,  "  the  doctrines  of  Confucius 
began  to  be  obscured,  and  the  religion  of  Buddha  spread.  Now 
Buddhism  originated  in  India,  but  many  of  the  Hindoos  have  re- 
nounced Buddhism  and  embraced  Mahometanism.  The  Roman 
Catholic  faith  originated  in  the  West,  but  some  nations  of  the 
West  have  adopted  Protestantism,  and  set  themselves  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  faith  of  Rome.  Whence  we  see  that  other  religions 
rise  and  fall  from  age  to  age,  but  the  doctrine  of  Confucius  sur- 
vives unimpaired  throughout  all  ages."  The  writer  is  careful 
to  disavow  any  sympathy  for  Christianity,  and  he  by  no  means 
recommends  its  adoption ;  but  he  wishes  to  assure  his  Majesty 
that  there  is  no  serious  evil  to  be  apprehended  even  if  Christian- 
ity should  succeed  in  supplanting  Buddhism,  as  long  as  the  peo- 
ple adhere  to  the  cardinal  doctrines  of  their  ancient  sage.  It  is 
a  great  thing  for  the  leading  minds  to  acknowledge  the  possi- 
bility of  a  change  even  in  this  hypothetical  form. 

Aside  from  these  religious  revolutions,  and  altogether  dis- 
tinct from  them,  are  several  periods  of  intellectual  awakening 
that  constitute  marked  epochs  in  the  history  of  literature. 

*  Tseng  Kuo-fan,  Viceroy  of  Nanking. 


234  CHINESE    EDUCATION',   ETC. 

The  first  of  these  was  occasioned  by  the  publication  of  the  Con- 
fucian Classics.  Another  occurred  in  the  time  of  Mencius, 
when  the  ethical  basis  of  the  school  underwent  a  searching  re- 
vision, the  great  question  of  the  original  goodness  or  depravity 
of  human  nature  being  discussed  with  acuteness  and  power.  A 
third  and  more  powerful  awakening  took  place  when  the  classic 
books  which  Liicheng  had  burned  rose,  phoenix-like,  from  their 
ashes,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly,  issued,  Minerva-like,  from  the 
retentive  brain  of  those  venerable  scholars  who  had  committed 
them  to  memory  in  their  early  boyhood. 

This  was  the  age  of  criticism,  the  very  circumstances  which 
roused  the  national  mind  to  activity  directing  its  efforts  to  the 
settlement  of  the  text  of  their  ancient  records.  But  it  did  not 
stop  here.  Slips  of  bamboo  and  tablets  of  wood,  the  clumsy 
materials  of  ancient  books,  gave  place  to  linen,  silk,  and  paper. 
The  convenience  and  elegance  of  the  material  contributed  to 
multiply  books  and  stimulate  literary  labor. 

The  great  work  which  laid  the  foundation  of  all  the  existing 
histories  of  the  Empire  was  produced  in  this  age ;  as  also  a  dic- 
tionary, the  pioneer  of  Chinese  lexicography,  since  followed  by 
more  voluminous  works,  but  so  complete  and  lucid  that  it  is 
still  reckoned  among  standard  authorities. 

But  the  grandest  of  all  the  revivals  of  learning  was,  as  might 
be  expected,  that  which  ensued  on  the  discovery  of  the  art  of 
printing.  In  the  period  above  referred  to,  about  A.D.  177,  the 
revised  text  of  the  sacred  books  was  engraved  on  tablets  of 
stone,  by  Imperial  order,  as  a  precaution  to  secure  it  against 
the  danger  of  another  conflagration.  Impressions  must  have 
been  taken  from  these,  and  the  art  of  printing  thus  practised 
to  a  limited  extent  at  that  early  date ;  but  it  was  not  till  the 
eighth  century  that  it  came  into  general  use  for  the  manufact- 
ure of  books.  At  that  time  the  number  of  old  works  de- 
scribed in  the  official  record  of  the  Imperial  Library  was  53,- 
915,  to  which  were  added  28,468  that  were  characterized  as 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN   CHINA.  235 

recent.  But  it  was  not  so  much  this  vastly  augmented  rate  of 
production  that  marked  the  epoch  as  the  improved  character  of 
its  original  literature.  This  was  eminently  the  age  of  poetry, 
when  Letaipe  and  Tufu,  and  a  whole  constellation  of  lesser  lights, 
rose  above  the  horizon.  The  poems  of  Tang  are  still  recognized 
as  forming  the  text-book  of  standard  poetry. 

This  period  was  succeeded  by  another  in  the  reign  of  the 
Sung  dynasty  (960-1279),  when  the  mind  of  China  exhibited 
itself  in  a  new  development.  It  became  seized  with  a  mania  for 
philosophical  speculation,  and  grappled  with  the  deepest  ques- 
tions of  ontology.  Chowtsze,  Chengtsze,  and,  above  all,  the  fa- 
mous Chuhe,  distinguished  themselves  by  the  penetrating  sub- 
tlety and  the  daring  freedom  of  their  inquiries.  Professing  to 
elucidate  the  ancient  philosophy,'  they  in  reality  founded  a  new 
one — a  school  of  pantheistic  idealism,  which  has  continued  dom- 
inant to  the  present  hour. 

The  last  two  dynasties  have  not  been  unfruitful  in  the  products 
of  the  intellect ;  indeed,  there  seems  to  be  no  end  or  abatement 
to  the  teeming  fertility  of  the  Chinese  mind.  Less  daringly 
original  than  in  the  preceding  period,  it  has  yet,  under  each  of 
these  dynasties,  appeared  in  a  new  style — the  writers  of  the 
Ming  being  distinguished  for  masculine  energy  of  expression, 
and  those  of  the  Ts'ing  for  graceful  elegance.  Each  period 
was  introduced  by  a  gigantic  work — that  of  the  Mings  by  the 
codification  of  the  laws  of  the  Empire,  the  Pandects  of  Yunglo ; 
and  that  of  the  Ts'ings  by  the  compilation  of  Kanghe's  Impe- 
rial Dictionary,  the  "  Webster  unabridged  "  of  the  Chinese  lan- 
guage. The  writers  of  the  Ts'ing  (the  present)  dynasty  are  dis- 
playing a  little  independence,  if  not  originality,  in  revolting 
against  the  authority  of  Chuhe  as  an  expositor  of  their  canon- 
ical Scriptures — a  reaction  against  the  pantheism,  or  rather  athe- 
ism, of  the  Sung  philosophers.  Whether  this  tendency  is  due  in 
any  degree  to  the  influence  of  Mahometans  and  Christians,  it 
is  certain  that  from  both  sources,  especially  the  latter,  the  Chi- 


236  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

nese  have  received  powerful  impulses  in  the  way  of  mathematics 
and  astronomy. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  Chinese  have  not 
maintained  through  all  the  ages  that  character  of  cast-iron  uni- 
formity so  generally  ascribed  to  them.  Worshippers  of  antiquity 
they  certainly  are,  and  strongly  conservative  in  their  mental  ten- 
dencies ;  but  they  have  not  been  content,  as  is  too  commonly 
supposed,  to  hand  down  from  the  earliest  times  a  small  stock  of 
crystallized  ideas  without  increase  or  modification.  The  germs 
of  their  civilization,  like  those  of  any  civilization  worth  preserving:, 
are  not  precious  stones  to  be  kept  in  a  casket,  but  seeds  to  be 
cultivated  and  improved.  In  fact,  modifications  have  taken  place 
on  an  extensive  scale,  foreign  elements  have  from  time  to  time 
been  engrafted  on  the  native  root,  and  the  native  scholar,  as  he  fol- 
lows back  the  pathway  of  history,  fails  to  discover  anything  like 
uniformity  or  constancy,  except  in  a  few  of  the  most  fundamental 
principles.  The  doctrine  of  filial  piety,  carried  to  the  point  of 
religious  devotion,  extends  like  a  golden  thread  through  all  the 
ages,  as  the  foundation  of  family  ties  and  social  order ;  -while  the 
principle  of  the  divine  origin  of  government,  administered  by 
one  man  as  the  representative  of  Heaven,  and  modified  by  the 
corresponding  doctrine  that  the  will  of  Heaven  is  expressed  in 
the  will  of  the  people,  is  found  alike  in  every  period  as  the  ba- 
sis of  their  civil  institutions. 

Though  not  so  much  given  to  change  as  their  more  mercurial 
antipodes,  it  is  still  true  that  the  constant  factors  of  their  civili- 
zation have  been  few,  and  the  variable  ones  many.  Bold  inno- 
vations and  radical  revolutions  rise  to  view  all  along  in  the  ret- 
rospect of  their  far-reaching  past,  and  prepare  them  to  anticipate 
the  same  for  the  future.  With  such  antecedents,  and  such  a 
character  for  intellectual  activity,  it  would  be  next  to  impossible 
that  they  should  not  be  profoundly  affected  by  their  contacts 
and  collisions  with  the  civilization  of  Christendom. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  impression  is  profound,  though  it  was 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  237 

not  immediately  apparent.  For  more  than  thirty  years  the 
West  has  been  acting  on  China  by  the  combined  influence  of  its. 
arms,  its  commerce,  its  religion,  and  its  science.  Some  of  these 
influences  commenced  to  operate  at  a  much  earlier  date,  and 
.their  effects  were  by  no  means  insignificant ;  but  of  late  years 
all  of  them  have  been  combined  with  an  oxyhydrogen-blow-pipe 
intensity  that  one  would  think  sufficient  to  melt  a  mountain  of 
adamant.  They  could  not,  in  the  nature  of  things,  have  been 
brought  to  bear  on  China  so  effectively  at  any  earlier  period,  on 
account  of  her  geographical  isolation. 

In  some  respects  a  great  advantage,  this  was,  in  others,  a  seri- 
ous drawback.  Almost  separated  from  the  whole  world,  as  the 
Romans  said  of  Britain,  she  had  a  magnificent  arena  in  which  to 
grow  undisturbed  and  develop  her  peculiar  culture.  The  moun- 
tains of  Thibet  rose  like  a  giant  breakwater  between  her  and 
that  tide-wave  of  Western  conquest  which  swept  away  the  co- 
eval empires  of  Babylon  and  Persia;  while  an  ocean  not  yet 
ploughed  by  the  keels  of  civilized  commerce  washed  her  eastern 
shore,  and  a  vast  expanse  of  inhospitable  plains  stretched  away 
to  the  north.  She  grew  up,  of  consequence,  without  a  rival — a 
giant  surrounded  by  pygmies,  a  pyramid  in  the  midst  of  mole- 
hills. The  weak  nationalities  and  wandering  tribes  by  whom 
she  was  surrounded  rendered  her  a  willing  homage,  more  im- 
pressed by  the  spectacle  of  her  greatness  than  affected  by  dread 
of  her  military  power;  and  China,  on  her  part,  was  accustomed 
to  treat  them  with  condescending  patronage  or  disdainful  con- 
tempt. Thus,  when  she  first  became  aware  of  the  existence  of 
the  great  nations  of  the  West,  she  judged  of  them  by  the  tribes 
on  her  own  frontiers ;  and  when  they  approached  her  by  em- 
bassies, she  employed  towards  them  the  forms  and  language  she 
had  been  accustomed  to  use  in  dealing  with  her  semi-barbarous 
neighbors.  She  assumed  a  tone  of  superiority,  pronounced  them 
barbarians,  and  demanded  tribute. 

For  a  long  time  they  were  too  remote  to  cause  her  great  un- 


238  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

easiness,  or  to  do  anything  that  could  materially  alter  this  state 
of  feeling.  She  saw,  it  is  true,  the  Russians  extending  their 
frontiers  from  the  Ural  to  Kamtschatka,  and  England  pushing 
her  conquests  to  the  banks  of  the  Irrawaddy.  But  the  fate  of 
scattered  nomads  and  decayed  nationalities  was  no  warning  to. 
her.  Even  when  those  great  powers  approached  her  in  hostile 
array,  she  was  still  confident  of  her  ability  to  resist  them. 
Hence  the  arrogant  tone  which  she  assumed  in  intercourse  with 
them,  and,  until  very  recently,  continued  to  maintain. 

It  was  this  arrogance  that  precipitated  the  Opium  war  of 
1839;  and  the  result  did  so  little  to  overcome  it  that  in  1856 
a  display  of  equal  or  greater  arrogance  brought  on  another  col- 
lision. For  more  than  three  years  the  Chinese  government 
persisted  in  applying  their  old  policy  to  the  Anglo-French  in- 
vaders, still  hoping  to  terminate  the  conflict  by  their  expulsion 
rather  than  by  conceding  the  points  in  dispute.  When,  how- 
ever, their  last  army  had  been  beaten,  their  Emperor  had  fled, 
and  his  palace  lay  in  ruins,  the  Chinese  awoke  to  the  reality  of 
their  situation.  They  opened  the  gates  of  their  capital,  and 
from  that  day  to  this  no  serious  thought  of  trying  the  issue  of  an- 
other such  conflict  has  crossed  the  mind  of  any  of  their  statesmen. 

This  lesson  was  decisive — an  experience  of  inestimable  value, 
without  which  all  the  attempts  of  Western  nations  to  benefit 
the  Chinese  must  have  proved  like  attempting  to  irrigate  the 
side  of  a  mountain  by  projecting  water  from  its  base. 

The  effect  was  immediate.  The  Chinese  were,  for  the  first 
time,  convinced  that  they  had  something  to  learn ;  and  within 
less  than  a  year  from  the  close  of  hostilities,  large  bodies  of 
Chinese  troops  might  have  been  seen  learning  foreign  tactics 
under  foreign  drill-masters,  on  the  very  battle-grounds  where 
they  had  been  defeated.  Arsenals,  well  supplied  with  machin- 
ery from  foreign  countries,  were  put  in  operation  at  four  impor- 
tant points,  one  of  them  employing  as  many  as  nine  hundred 
workmen ;  and  navy-yards  were  established  at  two  of  the  princi- 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  239 

pal  seaports,  where  the  construction  of  steam  gunboats,  entirely 
by  native  mechanics,  is  now  going  forward.* 

But  does  not  all  this  wear  rather  an  aspect  of  hostility  ?  Does 
it  not  indicate  that  the  Chinese,  worsted  in  the  late  contest,  are 
preparing  for  another  ? 

The  necessity,  we  answer,  of  providing  themselves  with  more 
efficient  means  for  suppressing  their  own  rebellions  is  sufficient 
to  account  for  it.  But,  after  all,  the  motive  is  of  little  conse- 
quence— the  important  fact  is  that  the  Chinese  are  learning. 
With  them  the  day  of  bows  and  arrows,  bamboo  spears,  and 
lumbering  war-junks  has  passed  away,  and  they  intend  hence- 
forth to  make  war  like  other  nations,  in  a  Christian  style.  They 
mean  to  be  able  to  keep  the  peace  within  their  own  borders,  and 
to  maintain  their  self-respect  in  the  face  of  the  world. 

But  they  do  not  stop  here ;  if  they  did,  there  might  be  ground 
for  suspicion.  But  they  are  a  pacific  people,  both  from  disposi- 
tion and  tradition,  using  war  neither  as  a  pastime  nor  a  business, 
but  resorting  to  it  solely  as  a  matter  of  necessity.  As  such  they 
are  now  learning  it,  and  applying  themselves  at  the  same  time 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  arts  of  peace. 

At  three  of  the  open  ports  they  have  established  schools  for 
the  study  of  the  languages  and  sciences  of  the  West;  and,  in 
connection  with  the  arsenal  at  Shanghai,  the  mandarins  have 
employed  three  gentlemen,  skilled  in  the  Chinese  language,  to 
translate  works  on  science  and  the  useful  arts. 

These  institutions,  it  might  be  said,  are  established  at  impor- 
tant outposts,  under  the  auspices  of  provincial  viceroys ;  but  they 
are  hardly  sufficient  to  justify  the  conclusion  that  the  central 

*  Two  other  arsenals  have  since  been  opened  at  provincial  capitals  in  the 
interior — one  of  them,  however,  being  speedily  suppressed  by  orders  from 
the  throne ;  the  other,  at  Tsinanfu,  in  Shantung,  is  described  by  an  English 
engineer  as  in  successful  operation — a  fact  worth  noting,  as  no  foreign  hand 
had  any  share  in  its  construction.  No  better  proof  could  be  given  of  the 
capacity  of  the  Chinese  to  acquire  the  arts  of  the  West. 


240  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

government  is  adopting  an  enlightened  and  liberal  policy.  But 
has  not  the  Imperial  government  at  length  afforded  this  evidence 
by  the  college  which  it  has  established  in  the  capital  for  the 
introduction  of  Western  science,  and  the  embassy  it  has  sent 
forth  to  cultivate  friendly  relations  with  the  nations  of  the  West  ? 

The  embassy,*  and  especially  the  treaties  it  is  now  negotiating, 
are  sufficient  evidence  of  liberality  in  the  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  the  college  in  which  graduates  in  the  schools  of  Con- 
fucius are  invited  to  become  pupils  is  the  most  undeniable  proof 
of  a  great  intellectual  movement.f  It  was  established  at  the  in- 
stance of  Prince  Kung,  uncle  to  the  Emperor,  and  the  most  in- 
fluential man  in  the  Empire. 

Two  memorials  of  the  Prince,  one  containing  the  proposal 
and  the  other  explaining  and  vindicating  it,  were  laid  before 
his  Majesty  and  published  in  the  official  gazette,  after  receiving 
the  Imperial  sanction,  constituting  them  a  charter  for  the  new 
institution.  The  second  of  these  papers  we  translate  from  the 
pages  of  the  gazette,  and  here  insert,  as  affording  a  photograph 
of  the  attitude  of  the  Chinese  mind  in  relation  to  these  subjects. 
Four  of  the  ministers  who  joined  the  Prince  in  presenting  it 
are  heads  of  departments  in  the  government. 

"  Memorial  of  Prince  Kung  on  the  Establishment  of  a  College 
for  the  Cultivation  of  Western  Science. 

"  Your  Majesty's  servant,  and  other  ministers  of  the  Council 

*  Instead  of  that  "  Ecumenical  Embassy  "  with  its  special  objects,  we  now 
see  permanent  Chinese  legations  established  in  the  principal  capitals  of  the 
West,  and  diplomatic  intercourse  conducted  on  a  basis  of  reciprocity.  In 
addition,  a  consular  system  has  been  inaugurated,  the  future  extent  and  in- 
fluence of  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  foretell. 

f  Since  the  date  of  the  above  this  tendency  has  shown  itself  in  a  new  di- 
rection in  the  sending  of  large  numbers  of  youth  for  education  to  the  Unit- 
ed States  and  other  countries,  Mr.  Yung-wing,  himself  a  graduate  of  an 
American  college,  being  a  principal  leader  of  the  movement. 


TUB    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  241 

for  Foreign  Affairs,  on  their  knees  present  this  memorial  in  re- 
gard to  regulations  for  teaching  astronomy  and  mathematics, 
and  the  selection  of  students. 

"These  sciences  being  indispensable  to  the  understanding  of 
machinery  and  the  manufacture  of  fire-arms,  we  have  resolved  on 
erecting  for  this  purpose  a  special  department  in  the  Tung-wen 
College,  to  which  scholars  of  a  high  grade  may  be  admitted,  and 
in  which  men  from  the  West  shall  be  invited  to  give  instruction. 

"  The  scheme  having  met  with  your  Majesty's  approval,  we  beg 
to  state  that  it  did  not  originate  in  a  fondness  for  novelties  or  in 
admiration  for  the  abstract  subtleties  of  Western  science;  but 
solely  from  the  consideration  that  the  mechanical  arts  of  the 
AArest  all  have  their  source  in  the  science  of  mathematics.  Now, 
if  the  Chinese  government  desires  to  introduce  the  building  of 
steamers  and  construction  of  machinery,  and  yet  declines  to 
borrow  instruction  from  the  men  of  the  West,  there  is  danger 
lest,  following  our  own  ideas,  we  should  squander  funds  to  no 
purpose. 

"  We  have  weighed  the  matter  maturely  before  laying  it  before 
the  throne.  But  among  persons  who  are  unacquainted  with 
the  subject,  there  are  some  who  will  regard  this  matter  as  unim- 
portant ;  some  who  will  censure  us  as  wrong  in  abandoning  the 
methods  of  China  for  those  of  the  West ;  and  some  who  will 
even  denounce  the  proposal  that  Chinese  should  submit  to  be 
instructed  by  the  people  of  the  West  as  shameful  in  the  ex- 
treme. Those  who  urge  such  objections  are  ignorant  of  the  de- 
mands of  the  times. 

"  In  the  first  place,  it  is  high  time  that  some  plan  should  be  de- 
vised for  infusing  new  elements  of  strength  into  the  government 
of  China.  Those  who  understand  the  times  are  of  opinion  that 
the  only  way  for  effecting  this  is  to  introduce  the  learning  and 
mechanical  arts  of  Western  nations.  Provincial  governors,  such 
as  Tsotsungtang  and  Lehungchang,  are  firm  in  this  conviction, 
and  constantly  presenting  it  in  their  addresses  to  the  throne. 

11 


242  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

The  last-mentioned  officer  last  year  opened  an  arsenal  for  the 
manufacture  of  arms,  and  invited  men  and  officers  from  the 
metropolitan  garrison  to  go  there  for  instruction ;  while  the 
other  established  in  Fuchau  a  school  for  the  study  of  foreign 
languages  and  arts,  with  a  view  to  the  instruction  of  young  men 
in  ship-building  and  the  manufacture  of  engines.  The  urgency 
of  such  studies  is  therefore  an  opinion  which  is  not  confined  to 
us  your  servants. 

"  Should  it  be  said  that  the  purchase  of  fire-arms  and  steamers 
has  been  tried,  and  found  to  be  both  cheap  and  convenient,  so 
that  we  may  spare  ourselves  the  trouble  and  expense  of  home 
production,  we  reply  that  it  is  not  merely  the  manufacture  of 
arms  and  the  construction  of  ships  that  China  needs  to  learn. 
But  in  respect  to  these  two  objects,  which  is  the  wiser  course,  in 
view  of  the  future — to  content  ourselves  with  purchase,  and  leave 
the  source  of  supply  in  the  hands  of  others,  or  to  render  our- 
selves independent  by  making  ourselves  masters  of  their  arts — it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  inquire. 

"  As  to  the  imputation  of  abandoning  the  methods  of  China,  is 
it  not  altogether  a  fictitious  charge?  For,  on  inquiry,  it  will  be 
found  that  Western  science  had  its  root  in  the  astronomy  of 
China,  which  Western  scholars  confess  themselves  to  have  de- 
rived from  Eastern  lands.  They  have  minds  adapted  to  reason- 
ing and  abstruse  study,  so  that  they  were  able  to  deduce  from  it 
new  arts  which  shed  a  lustre  on  those  nations ;  but,  in  reality,  the 
original  belonged  to  China,  and  Europeans  learned  them  from 
us.  If,  therefore,  we  apply  ourselves  to  those  studies,  our  future 
progress  will  be  built  on  our  own  foundation.  Having  the  root 
in  our  possession,  we  shall  not  need  to  look  to  others  for  assist- 
ance— an  advantage  which  it  is  impossible  to  overestimate. 

"  As  to  the  value  to  he  set  on  the  science  of  the  West,  your  il- 
lustrious ancestor  Kanghe  gave  it  his  hearty  approbation,  pro- 
moting its  teachers  to  offices  of  conspicuous  dignity,  and  em- 
ploying them  to  prepare  the  Imperial  calendar ;  thus  setting  an 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  243 

example  of  liberality  equalled  only  by  the  vastness  of  bis  all- 
comprehending  wisdom.  Our  dynasty  ought  not  to  forget  its 
own  precedents,  especially  in  relation  to  a  matter  which  occupied 
the  first  place  among  the  studies  of  the  ancients. 

"  In  olden  times  yeomen  and  common  soldiers  were  all  acquaint- 
ed with  astronomy ;  but  in  later  ages  an  interdict  was  put  upon 
it,  and  those  who  cultivated  this  branch  of  science  became  few. 
In  the  reign  of  Kanghe,  the  prohibition  was  removed  and  as- 
tronomical science  once  more  began  to  flourish.  Mathematics 
were  studied  together  with  the  classics,  the  evidence  of  which 
we  find  in  the  published  works  of  several  schools.  A  proverb 
says,  '  A  thing  unknown  is  a  scholar's  shame.'  Now,  when  a 
man  of  letters,  on  stepping  from  his  door,  raises  his  eyes  to  the 
stars  and  is  unable  to  tell  what  they  are,  is  not  this  enough  to 
make  him  blush  ?  Even  if  no  schools  were  established,  the  edu- 
cated ought  to  apply  themselves  to  such  studies;  how  much 
more  so  when  a  goal  is  proposed  for  them  to  aim  at  ? 

"  As  to  the  allegation  that  it  is  a  shame  to  learn  from  the  peo- 
ple of  the  West,  this  is  the  absurdest  charge  of  all.  For,  under 
the  whole  heaven,  the  deepest  disgrace  is  that  of  being  content 
to  lag  in  the  rear  of  others.  For  some  tens  of  years  the  nations 
of  the  West  have  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  steam  nav- 
igation, each  imitating  the  others  and  daily  producing  some  new 
improvement.  Recently,  too,  the  government  of  Japan  has  sent 
men  to  England  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring  the  language  and 
science  of  Great  Britain.  This  was  with  a  view  to  the  building 
of  steamers,  and  it  will  not  be  many  years  before  they  succeed. 

"Of  the  jealous  rivalry  among  the  nations  of  the  Western 
Ocean  it  is  unnecessary  to  speak ;  but  when  so  small  a  country 
as  Japan  is  putting  forth  all  its  energies,  if  China  alone  contin- 
ues to  tread  indolently  in  the  beaten  track,  without  a  single  ef- 
fort in  the  way  of  improvement,  what  can  be  more  disgraceful 
than  this  ?  Now,  not  to  be  ashamed  of  our  inferiority,  but,  when 
a  measure  is  proposed  by  which  we  may  equal  or  even  surpass 


244  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

our  neighbors,  to  object  the  shame  of  learning  from  them,  and, 
forever  refusing  to  learn,  to  be  content  with  our  inferiority — is 
not  such  meanness  of  spirit  itself  an  indelible  reproach  ? 

"  If  it  be  said  that  machinery  belongs  to  artisans,  and  that  schol- 
ars should  not  condescend  to  such  employments,  in  answer  to 
this,  we  have  a  word  to  say.  Why  is  it  that  the  book  in  the 
Chowle  on  the  structure  of  chariots  has  for  some  thousands  of 
years  been  a  recognized  text-book  in  all  the  schools  ?  Is  it  not 
because,  while  mechanics  do  the  work,  scholars  ought  to  under- 
stand the  principles  ?  When  principles  are  understood,  their  ap- 
plication will  be  extended.  The  object  which  we  propose  for 
study  to-day  is  the  principles  of  things.  To  invite  educated 
men  to  enlarge  the  sphere  of  their  knowledge  by  investigating 
the  laws  of  nature  is  a  very  different  thing  from  compelling 
them  to  take  hold  of  the  tools  of  the  workingman.  What  oth- 
er point  of  doubt  is  left  for  us  to  clear  up  ? 

"  In  conclusion,  we  would  say  that  the  object  of  study  is  utility, 
and  its  value  must  be  judged  by  its  adaptation  to  the  wants  of 
the  times.  Outsiders  may  vent  their  doubts  and  criticisms,  but 
the  measure  is  one  that  calls  for  decisive  action.  Your  servants 
have  considered  it  maturely.  As  the  enterprise  is  a  new  one,  its 
principles  ought  to  be  carefully  examined.  To  stimulate  candi- 
dates to  enter  in  earnest  on  the  proposed  curriculum,  they  ought 
to  have  a  liberal  allowance  from  the  public  treasury  to  defray 
their  current  expenses,  and  have  the  door  of  promotion  set  wide 
open  before  them.  We  have  accordingly  agreed  on  six  regula- 
tions, which  we  herewith  submit  to  the  eye  of  your  Majesty,  and 
wait  reverently  for  the  Imperial  sanction. 

"  We  are  of  opinion  that  the  junior  members  of  the  Ilanlin  In- 
stitute, being  men  of  superior  attainments,  while  their  duties  are 
not  onerous,  if  they  were  appointed  to  study  astronomy  and 
mathematics,  would  find  those  sciences  an  easy  acquisition.  With 
regard  to  scholars  of  the  second  and  third  grades,  as  also  man- 
darins of  the  lower  ranks,  we  request  your  Majesty  to  open  the 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  245 

portals  and  admit  them  to  be  examined  as  candidates,  that  we 
may  have  a  larger  number  from  whom  to  select  men  of  ability 
for  the  public  service. 

"  Laying  this  memorial  before  the  throne,  we  beseech  the  Em- 
presses regent  and  the  Emperor  to  cast  on  it  their  sacred  glance, 
and  to  give  us  their  instructions." 

The  Imperial  placet  is  added  with  the  "  vermilion  pencil."  It 
says,  "  Let  the  measures  proposed  in  the  memorial  be  adopted." 

This  remarkable  document  shows  us  the  humiliation  felt  by 
the  Chinese  mind  to  find  itself,  on  awakening,  in  the  rear  of  the 
age;  and  exhibits  in  an  amusing  light  the  sophistical  artifices 
resorted  to  by  the  friends  of  progress  to  avert  the  odium  which 
their  proposed  movement  was  certain  to  excite.  It  shows  us 
the  two  parties  in  conflict,  and  acquaints  us  with  the  position 
occupied  by  each.  The  conservatives  take  their  stand  within 
the  old  intrenchments  of  pride  and  prejudice,  while  their  assail- 
ants are  attempting  to  dislodge  them  by  the  force  of  arguments 
drawn  from  necessity. 

The  latter  are  the  party  in  power;  and  this  paper,  designed 
at  once  to  vindicate  the  action  of  the  government  and  to  refute 
the  narrow  views  of  those  who  would  adhere  to  the  policy  of  its 
predecessors,  goes  forth  to  the  people  of  the  Empire  under  the 
seal  of  their  sovereign,  and  endorsed  by  governors  and  viceroys. 

The  minds  that  are  thus  enlightened  are  few,  but  they  are 
the  most  eminent  in  the  State;  and  when  we  see  the  rays  of 
morning  glancing  on  the  highest  peaks  of  a  mountain-range,  we 
may  be  sure  that  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  light  reaches 
those  of  lesser  elevation,  or  penetrates  to  the  valleys  that  lie  be- 
tween them.  Under  a  government  constituted  like  that  of  China, 
an  immense  advantage  lies  on  the  side  of  those  in  power.  What- 
ever cause  they  advocate  is  sure  to  be  respected  by  the  people ; 
and  in  this  case,  convinced  that  ignorance  is  the  bane  of  their 
people,  they  are  in  earnest  in  endeavoring  to  apply  the  remedy. 


246  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Nor  are  these  enlightened  views  confined  to  the  heads  of  the 
government.  An  increasing  avidity  for  books  of  science  is  per- 
ceptible among  the  literary  classes ;  some  of  whom  contribute 
liberally  for  the  publication  of  scientific  works,  and  feel  repaid 
by  the  honor  of  having  their  names  associated  with  the  advance- 
ment of  learning. 

To  meet  this  growing  taste  for  real  knowledge,  the  Viceroy 
of  Kiangnan  is  now  bringing  out  a  series  of  works  on  scientific 
subjects,  mostly  by  European  authors,  employing  at  a  high  sala- 
ry, in  the  capacity  of  editor,  a  learned  native  who  was  instructed 
by  English  missionaries.  One  of  the  works  last  published  is 
Ricci's  translation  of  Euclid,  enlarged  by  A.  Wylie,  Esq.,  late  of 
the  London  mission.  It  contains  a  preface  by  the  last-named 
gentleman,  in  which  he  replies  to  the  common  charge  that  mis- 
sionaries take  advantage  of  mathematics  to  propagate  Christian- 
ity by  admitting  the  fact  and  setting  forth  the  transcendent 
value  of  religious  truth.  This  preface  is  reprinted  entire  with- 
out the  alteration  of  a  word ;  nor  does  the  viceroy,  in  the  intro- 
duction from  his  own  pen,  bring  forward  anything  to  counteract 
its  influence. 

The  views  of  the  more  advanced  members  of  this  scholarly 
class  are  well  set  forth  in  an  essay  lately  published  in  a  Chinese 
newspaper  by  Chang-lu-seng,*  a  gentleman  of  wealth  and  titular 
rank,  who  has  lately  published  two  small  volumes,  one  on  engi- 
neering and  the  other  on  chemistry. 

As  a  testimony  to  the  scientific  labors  of  missionaries  as  well 
as  an  index  of  intellectual  progress,  it  is  of  sufficient  value  to  jus- 
tify us  in  translating  a  few  paragraphs.  He  is  discussing  a  ques- 
tion much  mooted  among  the  Chinese,  that  of  the  advantages 
and  disadvantages  of  foreign  intercourse. 

"  Commencing,"  he  says,  "  with  the  last  years  of  the  Ming 
dynasty,  we  opened  the  seaports  of  Kwangtung  to  foreign  trade, 

*  Now  gj  $j ,  or  Vice-minister  to  Japan. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  247 

doing  a  profitable  business  in  tea  and  silks,  receiving  in  return 
fabrics  of  woollen  and  cotton  suited  to  our  wants ;  as  well  as 
clocks,  matches,  mirrors,  and  other  articles  of  luxury.  But  opium 
came  in  at  the  same  time,  and  its  poisonous  streams  have  pene- 
trated to  the  core  of  the  Flowery  Land.  The  blame  of  this  partly 
rests  on  us ;  but  when  we  go  to  the  root  of  the  evil,  it  is  impos- 
sible to  exculpate  the  English  from  the  guilt  of  originating  the 
traffic." 

"  Foreigners,  with  their  ships  and  steamers,  have,  moreover, 
monopolized  the  carrying  trade  of  the  sea-coast  and  the  great 
rivers ;  throwing  thousands  of  seafaring  natives  out  of  employ, 
and  causing  great  distress." 

To  the  advantage  derived  from  the  purchase  of  foreign  arms, 
from  the  assistance  of  foreigners  in  suppressing  the  late  rebellion, 
and,  above  all,  from  the  protection  which  they  extended  over  the 
open  ports,  he  does  ample  justice.  Yet  in  striking  a  balance- 
sheet,  he  still  concludes  that  the  "  advantages  derived  from  for- 
eign commerce  are  not  sufficient  to  make  amends  for  the  evils 
to  which  it  has  given  rise.  But  the  benefits  which  we  derive 
from  the  teachings  of  missionaries  are  more  than  we  can  enu- 
merate." 

He  then  recapitulates  the  publications  of  missionaries  on  sci- 
entific subjects,  commencing  with  those  of  the  Jesuit  fathers  of 
two  centuries  ago,  and  coming  down  to  those  of  the  Protestants 
of  the  present  day ;  and  closes  the  catalogue  with  the  remark, 
"  All  these  are  the  works  of  missionaries :  they  are  well  adapted 
to, augment  the  knowledge  and  quicken  the  intellect  of  China. 
Their  influence  on  our  future  will  be  unbounded." 

lie  does  not  stop  with  the  scientific  teachings  of  missionaries. 
"  China,"  he  says,  "  is  much  given  to  idolatry,  which  is  to  us  a 
source  of  wasteful  and  foolish  practices.  Now  Christianity 
teaches  men  to  renounce  the  worship  of  idols,  in  conformity 
with  the  maxim  of  Confucius, '  that  he  who  sins  against  Heaven 
will  pray  in  vain  to  any  other.'  Should  we  attend  to  these  in- 


248  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

structions,  our  women  would  cease  to  frequent  the  temples,  and 
we  should  waste  no  more  money  on  idolatrous  processions. 
Monasteries  would  be  converted  into  private  residences,  and  their 
yellow-capped  occupants  would  not  be  seen  fleecing  the  people 
by  their  deceptions.  Their  sorceries  and  charms  would  be 
laughed  at,  and  this  would  indeed  be  a  great  gain." 

The  author  of  these  paragraphs  has  very  little  sympathy  with 
the  spiritual  elements  of  our  holy  faith,  but,  like  many  of  his 
countrymen,  he  views  it  with  favor,  as  a  powerful  agency,  co-op- 
erating with  the  diffusion  of  science,  to  emancipate  his  country 
from  the  bondage  of  superstition. 

Such  views  as  these,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say,  have  not  yet 
become  the  staple  of  public  opinion.  The  opposition  outnum- 
bers the  administration,  and  pamphlets  against  Christianity  and 
science  are  more  numerous  than  those  in  their  favor.  Still, 
enough,  we  think,  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  tide  is  turn- 
ing. Chinese  statesmen  of  both  schools  recognize  the  incipient 
change.  Some  exert  all  their  influence  to  check  its  progress ; 
while  others,  who  describe  their  illiberal  opponents  as  tso  tsing 
kwan  tien,  "  looking  at  the  sky  from  the  bottom  of  a  well,"  are 
doing  all  in  their  power  to  help  it  forward. 

There  is  a  word  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  state-papers  of 
the  day  which  must  prove  a  talisman  of  might  to  the  progres- 
sive party.  This  is  Chungking,  a  term  allied  in  signification  to 
that  which  we  have  placed  at  the  head  of  this  article.  It  relates 
specifically  to  dynastic  renovations,  such  as  that  which  occurred 
in  the  dynasty  of  Han,  when  that  illustrious  house,  reviving  after 
a  period  of  decay,  entered  afresh  on  a  career  of  glory.  In  the 
present  case  the  Manchu  family,  which  has  given  to  the  Empire 
some  of  its  most  distinguished  sovereigns,  was  reduced  to  the 
verge  of  extinction  by  the  combined  influence  of  foreign  wars 
and  domestic  rebellion.  The  late  Emperor,  Ilienfung,  having 
fled  to  Tartary,  and  died  of  chagrin  and  despair,  the  victorious 
allies  strove  with  laudable  moderation  to  heal  the  wounds,  so 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  249 

nearly  fatal,  which  they  had  themselves  inflicted ;  and  when  his 
infant  son,  Tungche,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  they  afforded  him 
both  moral  support  and  military  aid. 

With  peace  abroad,  and  no  longer  any  powerful  enemy  at 
home,  the  statesmen  of  China  believe  (and  they  have  good 
grounds  for  the  opinion)  that  their  young  Emperor  comes  to 
power  at  a  most  auspicious  epoch.  Favored  with  the  friendship 
of  powerful  nations,  and  with  sources  of  power  unknown  to  an- 
tiquity placed  within  his  reach,  it  is  possible,  as  they  think,  and 
even  probable,  that  his  reign,  by  the  splendor  of  its  intellectual 
progress,  may  eclipse  the  military  glory  of  his  most  illustrious 
ancestors.  They  desire  to  make  the  present  reign  the  com- 
mencement of  a  new  career,  and  are  constantly  exhorting  one 
another  to  co-operate  in  the  work  of  renovation.  This  is  what 
they  mean  by  Chungking  ;  and  when  they  seek  to  effect  it  by  the 
intellectual  regeneration  of  their  people,  it  acquires  the  full 
dignity  of  a  national  renaissance. 

But  is  it  within  the  bounds  of  possibility  that  such  a  renais- 
sance should  be  achieved  without  the  whole  empire  first  passing 
through  a  period  of  disintegration  ?  Is  it  possible  that  this 
ancient  people,  hoary  with  years,  and  bowed  beneath  a  load  of 
traditions,  should  descend  into  the  fountain  of  youth  and  emerge 
with  all  the  freshness  of  manhood's  prime,  without  undergoing 
the  painful  process  of  dismemberment  and  reconstruction?  Or 
must  they  be  cut  piecemeal,  like  ^Eson  of  old,  and  thrown  into 
the  seething  caldron  before  they  can  come  forth  a  renovated 
people  ? 

This  is  the  great  problem  of  the  day,  the  question  of  "  to  be 
or  not  to  be  "  in  the  politics  of  China.  But,  however  it  may  be 
solved,  as  it  relates  to  the  government,  the  Chinese  people  must, 
and  will,  be  renovated.  Foreign  diplomatists  and  statesmen  feel 
that  a  mighty  change  must  pass  over  the  people,  sweeping  away 
their  old  superstitions,  unchaining  them  from  the  oars  of  custom, 
and  setting  their  minds  free  to  labor  in  productive  fields,  before 

11* 


250  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

they  can  be  qualified  to  develop  the  resources  of  their  magnifi- 
cent patrimony.  The  most  intelligent  of  them  believe  that  such 
a  change,  though  gradual  in  its  approach,  is  certain  to  take 
place.  Such  men  as  H.  B.  M.  Minister  in  Peking,  -whose  expe- 
rience in  China  dates  back  a  quarter  of  a  century ;  such  men  as 
the  chief  of  the  Chinese  Embassy,  whose  experience  extends 
over  seven  years ;  and  such  men  as  the  Inspector-general  of 
Imperial  Customs,  who  has  resided  in  China  twice  that  length 
of  time — all  have  faith  in  the  future  of  China,  and  favor  well- 
devised  schemes  for  the  improvement  of  the  Chinese  people.* 

We  have  adverted  to  the  encouragement  which  the  advocates 
of  progress  among  the  Chinese  derive  from  a  prevailing  impres- 
sion that  the  present  is  a  time  favorable  for  Chungking,  or  reno- 
vation. In  addition  to  this,  they  have  a  powerful  support  in  a 
saying  of  their  Sage,  expressed  in  the  first  sentence  of  the  Tahio, 
or  Great  Study,  that  "  it  is  the  prime  duty  of  the  sovereign  to 
seek  the  renovation  of  his  people." 

To  the  renovation  of  the  Chinese  people,  the  most  formidable 
obstacle  is  the  use  of  opium,  a  vice  of  recent  growth,  for  the 
prevalence  of  which  they  have  to  thank  the  unscrupulous  cupid- 
ity of  Christian  nations.  It  undermines  the  physical  system, 
impairs  the  mental  faculties,  and  smites  the  moral  nature  with  a 
kind  of  paralysis.  It  impoverishes  the  individual  and  the  pub- 
lic, and  hangs  as  a  dead  weight  on  the  prosperity  of  the  State. 
A  little  cloud  at  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  it 
has  expanded  with  alarming  rapidity,  until  it  casts  heavy  shad- 
ows over  the  prospect  of  the  future  and  on  the  hearts  of  the 
well-wishers  of  China.  It  threatens  to  sap  the  vigor  of  the 
Chinese  race — a  race  that  has  seen  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians 
laid  in  their  graves,  and  continued  till  our  own  day  with  unim- 
paired vitality,  sending  forth  fresh  swarms  from  the  old  hive  to 

*  The  gentlemen  referred  to  are  Sir  R.  Alcock,  the  Hon.  Anson  Bur- 
lingame,  and  Robert  Hart,  Esq.  The  last  named  still  remains  at  his  impor- 
tant post. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  251 

colonize  the  steppes  of  Tartary  and  the  islands  of  the  sea,  and 
to  compete  with  European  immigration  on  our  own  Pacific 
coast. 

But  happily  an  antidote  is  in  the  field.  The  Chinese  have 
not  attempted,  like  the  Japanese,  to  weave  their  code  of  inter- 
national intercourse  into  a  network  which  shall  admit  civilization 
and  exclude  Christianity.*  On  the  contrary,  the  government  has 
pledged  itself  in  all  its  recent  treaties  to  protect  the  propagators 
and  professors  of  the  Christian  religion.  Already  is  Christian- 
ity in  some  localities  getting  a  hold  on  the  popular  mind ;  and 
though  it  encounters  violent  opposition,  culminating  now  and 
then  in  a  furious  outbreak,  the  Imperial  power  may  at  any  time 
be  invoked  for  its  defence  by  the  representative  of  a  "  Treaty  " 
nation.  It  is  working  its  way  up  through  the  lower  strata  of 
society,  preparing  its  triumph  from  afar,  proving  itself  a  moral 
antiseptic  to  counteract  the  growth  of  corruption ;  or  rather  a 
new  principle  of  life,  which  will  not  merely  conserve,  but  renovate, 
the  Chinese  race.  To  this  grand  result  the  intellectual  move- 
ment which  it  is  the  special  object  of  this  article  to  indicate  will 
prove  itself  a  powerful  auxiliary,  like  the  revival  of  letters  in 
modern  Europe,  preparing  the  way  for  a  work  of  spiritual 
reform. 

Can  this  renovation,  we  again  ask,  be  effected  under  the  scep- 
tre of  the  reigning  house  ?  Without  venturing  a  categorical 
answer,  we  only  say  that  many  propitious  circumstances  appear 
to  concur  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

The  present  is  a  minority  reign ;  and  the  influential  men  who 
surround  the  throne  are  leaders  in  a  movement  to  "infuse 
new  elements  of  strength  into  the  government  of  China."  The 
Emperor,  a  lad  of  thirteen  years,  may  imbibe  their  spirit  and 

*  How  great  a  change  has  taken  place  in  the  attitude  of  Japan  towards 
Christianity  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  a  large  body  of  missionaries  are 
now  engaged  in  openly  and  successfully  carrying  on  their  work  in  that 
country. 


252  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

shape  his  policy  on  theirs ;  and  in  a  few  years,  when  he  takes 
the  reins  of  power  into  his  own  hands,  he  will  receive  in  person, 
as  by  treaty  bound,  the  ambassadors  of  foreign  powers,  lie  will 
thus  have  an  opportunity  of  acquiring  new  ideas,  such  as  his 
fathers  never  enjoyed. 

The  government,  though  rudely  shaken  and  much  exhausted, 
gives  unmistakable  signs  of  convalescence.  With  its  growing 
superiority  in  discipline  and  arms,  it  can  smile  at  the  menaces  of 
border  tribes,  and  hold  in  check  the  seeds  of  domestic  revolu- 
tion. China's  greatest  danger  is  from  the  great  powers  of  the 
West. 

Russia  covets  her  sunny  plains  and  fine  harbors,  and  France 
would  not  be  averse  to  accepting  China  as  an  offset  to  British 
India.  But  England  is  too  jealous  of  her  great  rivals  to  consent 
to  any  encroachment  of  this  nature  by  either  of  them.  The 
doctrine  of  the  balance  of  power,  formerly  limited  in  its  applica- 
tion to  the  map  of  Europe,  is  now  transferred  to  Eastern  Asia ; 
and  it  is  under  the  shield  of  this  principle  alone  that  either 
China  or  Japan  can  hope  to  maintain  her  independence,  or  to  go 
forward  in  that  career  of  progress  on  which  both  have  so  auspi- 
ciously entered. 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    CHINA.  253 


NOTE. 

Let  the  reader  who  may  feel  inclined  to  censure  as  over-sanguine  the 
statements  and  anticipations  of  eleven  years  ago  compare  them  with  the 
following  paragraphs,  which  I  copy  from  an  editorial  article  in  the  Shangliai 
Courier  of  January  7,  1880: 

"China  is  moving.  She  is  moving  in  the  path  of  progress,  knowledge, 
and  civilization.  The  rate  of  movement  may  be  slow,  much  slower  than  her 
truest  friends  desire ;  but  the  fact  is  beyond  dispute. 

"A  single  illustration  will  show  this.  For  the  first  time  in  the  world's 
history  the  Chinese  flag  has  lately  been  seen  in  the  middle  of  the  Pacific. 
That  one  fact,  viewed  in  the  light  of  the  past,  is  in  some  respects  more 
pregnant  and  suggestive  than  any  which  has  occurred  in  connection  with 
this  Empire.  That  the  nation  which  but  the  other  day  was  content  to  con- 
duct its  commerce  by  means  of  the  old-fashioned  junk,  which  rarely  vent- 
ured very  far  from  the  shore,  should  send  a  steamer  across  the  Pacific,  and 
thus  enter  into  competition  with  foreigners  on  what  might  almost  be  called 
their  own  element,  is  really  an  important  historical  fact. 

"  But  a  few  years  ago  China  prohibited  emigration,  while  other  lands 
were  seeking  the  services  of  the  industrious  Chinamen,  and  in  a  way  main- 
taining their  right  to  leave  their  native  land.  To-day  those  same  countries 
are  exerting  themselves  to  repel  the  influx  of  the  yellow  race,  while  China 
is  defending  their  right  to  foreign  residence  and  good  treatment. 

"  In  nearly  all  the  courts  of  the  civilized  world  there  are  representatives 
of  China.  Instead  of  being  a  feeble  power  tottering  to  ruin,  and  likely  to 
fall  a  prey  to  any  adventurer,  she  has  shown  her  ability  to  crush  out  the 
most  serious  rebellions ;  and  when  a  Western  empire,  taking  advantage  of 
a  temporary  weakness,  annexed  one  of  her  distant  provinces,  her  diplomacy 
— which,  indeed,  has  rarely  failed  her — enabled  her  to  obtain  its  restoration. 
Instead  of  being  looked  upon  with  contempt  as  a  military  power,  as  a  coun- 
try which  a  single  regiment  of  skilled  soldiers  might  overrun  and  hold  in 
subjection,  she  has  come  to  be  considered  as  a  factor  not  only  in  Asiatic, 
but  in  European,  politics ;  and  it  would  seem  that  more  than  one  of  the  most 
powerful  nations  of  Europe  were  now  courting  her  as  a  possible  ally  ia  some 
future  momentous  struggle.  Her  long  sea-coasts  and  rivers  are  buoyed  and 
lighted ;  some  of  her  coal-mines  are  being  worked  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  foreign  engineers ;  a  short  telegraph-line  is  in  successful  operation  ; 


254  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

a  company  of  native  merchants  own  one  of  the  largest  fleets  of  steamers  in 
the  world ;  and  many  millions  of  the  natives  are  clothed  with  the  produce 
of  foreign  manufactures. 

"  We  need  not  pursue  the  comparison  further ;  for  we  have,  we  think, 
mentioned  sufficient  to  show  that  China  is  progressing,  that  she  occupies  a 
Tery  different  position  to-day  to  what  she  did  only  a  few  years  ago,  and 
that  there  are  indications  of  still  greater  changes  in  the  not  distant  future. 
That  foreign  improvements  and  inventions  should  not  be  adopted  more 
readily  is  to  many  a  matter  of  disappointment  and  vexation ;  but  it  should 
not  be  forgotten  that  national  evolution  is  a  slow  process.  China  has  been 
for  some  years,  and  is  now,  serving  a  kind  of  apprenticeship  to  true  civiliza- 
tion ;  and  the  knowledge  which  she  is  acquiring  in  various  ways  she  will  one 
day  apply  to  her  advantage.  The  young  Chinese  who  are  being  trained  in 
foreign  systems,  whether  at  home  or  abroad,  and  who  in  time  will  fill  of- 
ficial positions ;  the  thousands  who  emigrate  to  foreign  countries  and  return 
to  live  in  their  fatherland ;  the  increasing  number  of  Chinese  who  are  be- 
coming familiar  in  China  with  Western  modes  of  life  and  government ;  in 
fact,  all  ways  by  which  East  and  West  are  virtually  brought  into  closer  con- 
tact, must  cause  the  general,  if  gradual,  adoption  of  Western  ideas ;  and  the 
adoption  of  Western  ideas  means  individual  liberty,  national  safety,  and  in- 
creased comfort  and  prosperity." 


APPENDIX 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  257 


THE  WORSHIP  OF  ANCESTORS  IN  CHINA.* 

RITUAL    TENDENCIES    OF    THE    CHINESE. 

As  the  Chinese  language  has  preserved  for  the  student  of 
philology  one  of  the  simplest  forms  of  human  speech,  so  in 
China  the  investigator  of  what  has  been  called  the  science  of  re- 
ligion may  find  certain  phases  of  primitive  religion  conserved  to 
the  present  day  in  a  state  of  arrested  development. 

This  has  been  effected  by  the  agency  of  a  settled  government 
ruling  over  the  same  people  for  thousands  of  years,  with  only 
occasional  interruptions,  and  these  at  long  intervals;  a  govern- 
ment which  early  conceived  the  idea  of  ruling  by  inspiring  its 
subjects  with  a  respect  for  traditional  forms  as  a  substitute  for 
military  force.  It  has  been  said  that  the  bamboo  rules  China, 
but  it  would  be  nearer  the  truth  to  assert  that  the  Chinese  are 
governed  by  custom.  Among  them  more  than  anywhere  else, 
custom  has  the  force  of  law ;  and  they  more  than  any  other  peo- 
ple have  moulded  all  the  relations  of  social  life  into  opnformity 
with  a  complicated  code  of  ritual  observances.  Etiquette  with 
them  becomes  a  kind  of  religion,  and  instead  of  being  restricted 
to  the  narrow  circle  over  which,  in  other  countries,  fashion  reigns 
supreme,  it  is  made  a  serious  study  in  all  the  schools  of  the 
land.  Sages  have  not  disdained  to  teach  it;  and  a  high  court 
exists,  and  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages,  which  takes  cog- 
nizance of  all  questions  relating  to  official  manners,  State  cere- 
mony, and  religious  ritual. 

*  Read  before  the  American  Oriental  Society  in  New  York,  Oct.  28, 1880. 


258  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

This  court  is  called  the  Board  of  Rites,  and  has  nothing  an- 
swering to  it  in  the  political  constitutions  of  the  West. 

We  find  it  in  full  operation  at  the  beginning  of  the  third 
dynasty,  B.C.  1150 ;  and  the  idea  of  what  has  been  denominated 
ceremonial  government  meets  us  a  thousand  years  earlier  in  the 
opening  pages  of  the  Shuking,  a  book  which  presents  us  with 
the  prologue  to  the  long  drama  of  Chinese  history. 

The  Emperor  Shun,  after  an  unsuccessful  campaign  against  a 
rebellious  district,  is  represented  as  bringing  his  refractory  sub- 
jects to  submission  by  the  celebration  of  a  religious  pageant  in 
the  temple  of  his  ancestors.  Later  writers  say  that  the  mon- 
archs  of  that  halcyon  period  knew  how  to  employ  moral  forces 
in  place  of  physical ;  or,  as  they  express  it,  they  secured  the  peace 
of  the  Empire  by  merely  displaying  their  embroidered  robes; 
which,  means  that  they  maintained  in  their  palaces  an  imposing 
ceremonial,  and  caused  their  example  to  be  followed  as  far  as 
possible  by  officers  and  people. 

A  government  so  wide-awake  to  the  efficacy  of  the  sentiment 
of  reverence  as  a  means  for  controlling  the  multitude  could  not 
fail  to  assign  a  large  place  to  the  regulation  of  religious  rites. 
We  are  accordingly  told  in  distinct  terms  that  the  dynasty  of 
Shang,  the  second  of  the  great  houses  which  swayed  the  sceptre 
over  the  whole  Empire,  "  employed  the  worship  of  the  gods  as 
an  instrument  of  government." 

What  gods  were  worshipped,  and  with  what  rites,  in  those 
early  days  when  Moses  was  going  To  school  to  the  priests  of 
Memphis,  and  when  Cecrops  had  not  yet  landed  on  the  shores 
of  Attica,  we  are  not  minutely  informed;  but  in  the  next  era, 
that  of  the  long  dynasty  of  Chau,  B.C.  1150-300,  under  which 
the  civilization  of  China  was  crystallized  into  its  permanent  and 
distinctive  shape,  we  find  the  national  religion  consisting  of  three 
elements:  1.  The  worship  of  Shangti,  the  Supreme  Ruler;  2. 
The  worship  of  powers  supposed  to  preside  over  the  principal 
departments  of  material  nature ;  and  3.  The  worship  of  deceased 
ancestors. 


THE    WORSHIP    OF   ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  259 

RISE    AND    PROGRESS    OF  THE    SYSTEM. 

The  first  two  of  these  divisions  I  shall  pass  by  as  not  belong- 
ing to  our  present  subject,  merely  observing  that  they  both  meet 
us  at  the  dawn  of  Chinese  history  in  a  much  more  distinct  form 
than  that  which  is  assumed  by  the  worship  of  ancestors.  This 
is  what  we  should  expect  from  the  order  of  mental  development. 
Man  opens  his  eyes  on  the  external  world  before  he  learns  to  re- 
flect on  the  phenomena  of  his  own  mind.  He  personifies  the 
forces  of  nature,  and  marshals  them  into  a  hierarchy  under  the 
hegemony  of  some  supreme  divinity — "Jehovah,  Jove,  or  Lord" 
— before  he  arrives  at  a  conception  of  his  own  personal  immor- 
tality. This  done,  the  idea  of  a  renewed  or  continued  existence 
in  some  unseen  world  in  the  company  of  the  gods  is  one  which 
is  not  slow  to  rise ;  suggested,  as  it  is,  by  a  thousand  analogies, 
and  gratifying,  as  it  does,  our  instinctive  love  of  life,  and  aspira- 
tions after  progress. 

Few  tribes  have  been  found  so  rude  as  not  to  have  formed 
some  notion  of  a  heaven  or  hell.  The  Zulus,  prior  to  their  con- 
tact with  the  white  settlers  of  the  Cape,  were  accustomed  to  ac- 
count for  disturbing  dreams  and  bodily  disease  by  saying  that 
they  were  troubled  by  the  spirits  of  their  ancestors.  The  North 
American  Indian  expects  to  rejoin  his  forefathers  in  the  "  happy 
hunting-ground ;"  and  the  rude  progenitors  of  our  own  race  in 
the  wilds  of  Northern  Europe  had  their  courage  fired  by  the 
promise  of  a  place  in  Walhalla  by  the  side  of  Odin.  At  the 
dawn  of  history  we  find  the  same  belief  already  rooted  in  the 
Chinese  mind. 

Thus,  in  the  first  chapter  of  the  Shuking,  their  earliest  histor- 
ical record,  we  read  the  simple  statement,  "  The  Emperor  died ;" 
but  the  ideograph  by  which  the  notion  of  death  is  here  expressed, 
besides  being  different  from  the  common  character,  is  composed 
of  two  parts  which  convey  the  idea  of  being  "  gathered  to  one's 
fathers."  The  authorized  commentary,  without  referring  "to  ety- 


200  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

mology,  explains  it  as  signifying  the  return  of  the  physical  ele- 
ments to  earth,  and  the  ascent  of  the  spiritual  part  to  heaven. 
But,  not  to  cite  other  passages,  the  traditional  view  of  the  an- 
cient Chinese  is  more  clearly  indicated  by  a  poet  who  flourished 
about  the  epoch  of  the  Trojan  war,  who  sees  in  vision  "\Ycn- 
wang,  the  founder  of  the  house  of  Chau,  promoted  to  be  a  min- 
istering spirit  in  the  palace  of  the  Supreme  Kuler.  Nor  is  this 
merely  a  poetical  apotheosis  which  springs  from  flattery  of  the 
great.  Not  long  after  that  date,  we  find  it  a  common  belief  that 
children  meet  their  parents  in  a  state  of  conscious  existence  in 
some  subterranean  Elysium.  Thus  Chuang-kung,  the  Duke  of 
Cheng,  enraged  at  the  conduct  of  his  mother,  who  had  abetted 
a  conspiracy  of  his  younger  brother  (another  Parysatis  favoring 
another  Cyrus),  makes  a  hasty  vow  that  he  will  never  see  her 
face  until  he  meets  her  under  the  earth.  Repenting  his  rash- 
ness, and  longing  for  reconciliation,  he  eagerly  embraces  an  ex- 
pedient for  evading  the  fulfilment  of  his  vow  by  meeting  his 
mother  in  a  subterranean  grotto.  Shallow  and  almost  comical 
as  is  the  artifice  by  which  he  imposes  on  conscience  in  favor  of 
affection,  it  points  to  a  national  belief  as  distinctly  as  does  Ho- 
mer's narrative  of  Ulysses  seeking  his  father  among  the  Cim- 
merian shades,  or  Virgil's  story  of  ^Eneas's  descent  into  Aver- 
nus. 

From  faith  in  a  future  state,  the  practice  of  presenting  offer- 
ings to  the  dead  came  into  use  as  a  matter  of  course ;  nor  among 
the  ancient  Chinese  were  the  offerings  confined  to  fruits  and 
flowers.  At  the  time  when  Polyxena  was  immolated  on  the 
tomb  of  Achilles,  it  was  the  custom  to  despatch  a  retinue  of 
slaves  and  favorite  concubines  to  follow  the  spirit  of  a  prince  or 
noble  into  the  world  of  shades.  This  was  abolished,  we  are  told, 
about  B.C.  700  ;  and  the  occasion  is  thus  related : 

A  prince  of  one  of  the  feudal  states  having  deceased,  his 
principal  wife  proposed  to  give  him  a  magnificent  funeral,  and 
to  offer  an  unusual  number  of  men  and  maidens  to  accompany 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  261 

his  manes.  The  Prince's  brother  replied,  "  If  any  one  is  to  be 
sacrificed,  your  Ladyship  shall  be  the  first,  for  his  Highness  loved 
no  one  better  than  you."  The  Princess  declined  the  honor,  and 
the  spell  of  custom  was  broken  forever. 

A  reminiscence  of  the  cruel  rite  was,  however,  long  retained  in 
the  substitution  of  effigies  made  of  straw  which  were  buried 
with  the  corpse ;  a  trace  of  it  may  even  be  discovered  in  the 
present  day  in  the  burning  of  paper  images,  and  perhaps  also  in 
the  suicide  of  widows.  Against  the  interment  of  effigies,  Con- 
fucius raised  an  energetic  protest,  because  they  bore  the  sem- 
blance of  human  victims;  and  now  and  then  a  censor  morum 
lifts  his  voice  against  the  self-immolation  of  Chinese  widows; 
but  such  acts  of  conjugal  devotion  are  always  rewarded  by  pop- 
ular applause,  and  not  unfrequently  signalized  by  marks  of  Im- 
perial favor. 

Considerable  amounts  of  jewelry  and  treasure  are  sometimes 
enclosed  in  the  coffins  of  the  rich ;  and  a  premium  is  thus  of- 
fered to  the  commission  of  what  in  Chinese  law  is  treated  as  a 
capital  crime.  But  in  general  the  Chinese,  in  making  offerings 
to  the  dead,  have  an  eye  to  the  wants  of  the  living ;  of  the  fruits 
and  meats,  enough  remains,  after  their  spiritual  essence  has  been 
enjoyed  by  the  soul  of  the  departed,  to  provide  a  feast  for  the 
family ;  and  instead  of  silver  and  gold,  masses  of  gilt  paper  are 
made  to  do  duty ;  and  on  passing  through  the  flames  they  are 
supposed  to  be  transmuted  into  the  metals  which  they  simulate. 

The  offerings  at  the  tombs  are  renewed  every  spring  and  au- 
tumn ;  and  on  fine  days  the  population  of  a  city  may  be  seen 
pouring  forth  in  all  directions,  seeking  out  the  sepulchres  of 
their  ancestors,  and  combining  religious  duty  with  much-needed 
recreation.  But  there  is  another  place  where  the  offerings  are 
more  frequent.  This  is  the  ancestral  temple.  Here  the  deceased 
are  represented,  not  by  images  or  pictures,  but  by  slips  of  wood 
inscribed  with  their  names.  Tablets  representing  near  relatives 
are  preserved  in  a  shrine  in  the  family  residence.  Those  com- 


262  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

mon  to  a  clan  or  tribe  are  honored  with  a  temple  of  more  or  less 
extent,  according  to  the  wealth  of  the  community. 

Before  these  memorial  tablets  every  member  of  the  house- 
hold prostrates  himself  at  least  twice  a  month — viz.,  at  the  new 
and  full  moon.  Every  important  event  affecting  the  family  is 
solemnly  announced  to  the  ancestors ;  marriages  are  solemnized 
in  their  presence;  and  anew  bride  presents  offerings  to  her  hus- 
band's ancestors  in  token  of  adoption  into  their  family. 

RELATION   TO    THE    SAN    KIAO, -OR   THREE    RELIGIONS. 

Such,  in  outline,  is  the  system  of  ancestral  worship,  which  con- 
stitutes the  central  division,  and,  as  it  were,  the  very  heart,  of  the 
religion  of  China.  The  Supreme  Ruler  is  too  august  to  be  ap- 
proached by  ordinary  mortals.  As  to  other  divinities,  their 
worship  is  incumbent  only  on  priests  or  magistrates ;  but  the 
worship  of  ancestors  is  obligatory  upon  all.  They  are  the  pc- 
nates  of  every  household.  To  honor  them  is  religion ;  to  neg- 
lect them  the  highest  impiety. 

We  have  seen  how  usages  of  this  kind  spring  as  naturally  as 
the  grass  from  the  graves  of  the  deceased ;  and  that  in  ancient 
times  the  funeral  rites  of  the  Chinese  differed  little  from  those 
of  other  nations.  That  by  which  they  are  justly  distinguished 
is  that,  instead  of  suffering  them  to  be  overshadowed  by  poly- 
theism, they  alone  have  shaped  their  offices  for  the  dead  into  an 
all-pervading  and  potent  cult  which  moulds  the  social  and  spir- 
itual life  of  every  individual  in  the  Empire. 

Spontaneous  in  its  origin,  in  its  progressive  development  it 
is  the  slow  growth  of  thirty  centuries.  It  is  probable  that  it 
was  practised  in  the  Golden  Age  of  Chinese  history,  two  thousand 
years  before  the  Christian  era ;  and  in  the  rites  of  Chow,  a  thou- 
sand years  later,  we  find  it  reduced  to  a  precise  and  complicated 
code ;  but  it  was  not  so  stereotyped  as  to  be  incapable  of  further 
alteration.  It  was  then  disfigured  by  grotesque  ceremonies,  the 
reproduction  of  which  at  the  present  day  would  be  regarded  as 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  263 

hardly  less  shocking  than  the  restoration  of  human  sacrifices — I 
allude  particularly  to  that  curious  arrangement  by  which  a  sol- 
emn act  of  religion  was  converted  into  a  ridiculous  masquerade 
— young  children  being  made  to  personate  their  ancestors,  and, 
habited  in  ghostly  costume,  receiving  the  homage  of  their  own 
parents.  Nor  was  it  then  clothed  with  the  imperious  authority 
which  it  now  exercises.  In  the  life  of  Confucius  we  find  record- 
ed the  remarkable  fact  that  when  arrived  at  manhood  he  was 
ignorant  of  the  burial-place  of  his  father,  who  had  died  when  he 
was  an  infant,  and  it  was  not  until  the  death  of  his  mother  that 
he  took  pains  to  ascertain  it.  This  indicates  a  degree  of  laxity 
which  would  not  be  possible  at  the  present  day,  when  semi- 
annual offerings  are  required  to  be  made  at  the  tombs  of  ances- 
tors. 

Yet  it  is  to  Confucius  more  than  to  any  other  man  that  China 
is  indebted  for  the  strictness  with  which  the  rites  of  this  worship 
are  now  universally  observed.  Making  filial  piety  the  corner- 
stone of  his  ethical  system,  and  only  vaguely  recognizing  the 
personality  of  the  supreme  power,  whom  he  styles  Tien,  or 
Heaven,  he  was  led  to  seek  in  the  worship  of  ancestors  for  the 
religious  sanctions  required  to  confirm  it.  "  If,"  said  he,  "  funer- 
al rites  are  performed  with  scrupulous  care,  and  remote  ancestors 
duly  recognized,  the  virtues  of  the  people  will  be  strengthened." 
This  is  a  maxim  which  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  religious 
polity  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

The  more  objectionable  features  in  ancestral  worship  are  not 
due  to  Confucius,  and  derive  no  sanction  from  his  authority ;  I 
mean  the  belief  in  an  active  interest  taken  by  the  deceased  in  the 
fortunes  of  their  posterity,  which  leads  to  their  virtual  deifica- 
tion, and  the  absurd  doctrine  that  the  destinies  of  the  family  are 
determined  by  the  location  of  the  family  tombs. 

The  first  of  these  springs  so  readily  from  the  human  heart 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  look  for  its  origin  in  the  teachings  of 
any  particular  school.  It  is  touching  to  read  on  a  tombstone 


264  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

that  a  mourning  family,  Laving  laid  an  aged  parent  in  his  last 
resting-place,  beseech  his  spirit  to  hover  over  them  as  a  protect- 
ing power.  But  the  Chinese  are  not  so  taught  by  Confucius, 
who,  when  interrogated  as  to  the  survival  of  the  soul,  refused  to 
admit  that  it  possesses  any  conscious  existence  after  the  death 
of  the  body ;  and  who,  while  exhorting  to  sincerity  in  sacrifices, 
went  no  further  than  to  say,  "Sacrifice  to  the  spirits  as  ifiktiy 
were  present." 

The  other  tenet  is  derived  from  fung-shui,  or  geomancy,  the 
debasing  offshoot  of  a  degenerate  Taoism.  This  false  science, 
which  bears  to  geology  a  relation  similar  to  that  which  astrology 
bears  to  astronomy,  assumes  the  existence  of  certain  influences 
connected  with  the  configuration  of  the  surface  which  affect  the 
destinies  of  the  inhabitants  of  any  given  locality.  These  must 
be  taken  account  of  in  selecting  the  site  of  a  dwelling-house, 
a  school,  a  shop,  or  even  a  stable,  and  especially  a  burial-place. 
So  strong  is  the  conviction  on  this  last  point  that  families 
who  are  overtaken  by  a  series  of  misfortunes  are  often  persuad- 
ed to  exhume  the  bones  of  their  forefathers,  and  shift  them,  per- 
haps more  than  once,  to  a  new  location,  in  hopes  of  hitting  on 
the  focus  of  auspicious  influences.  This  superstition  is  even  car- 
ried into  the  domain  of  politics ;  so  that  the  government,  on  sup- 
pressing a  rebellious  emeute,  has  been  known  to  order  the  de- 
struction of  the  family  tombs  of  the  rebel  chief,  in  order  to 
strike  at  what  is  supposed  to  be  the  fountain-head  of  the  dis- 
turbing influence. 

Buddhism  has  also  exerted  a  profound  influence  on  the  wor- 
ship of  ancestors,  strengthening,  as  it  has  done,  the  instinctive 
faith  in  a  future  state,  and  introducing  an  elaborate  liturgy  for 
the  repose  of  the  departed. 

RELATION    TO    SOCIAL    ORDER. 

After  the  rapid  sketch  which  we  have  now  given  of  the  rise 
of  ancestral  worship,  and  its  relation  to  the  Three  Religions,  it 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  265 

may  be  worth  while  to  inquire  what  influence  it  has  exerted  on 
the  civilization  of  China.  If  we  were  to  attempt  an  answer  in  a 
single  sentence,  we  should  say,  it  has  been  deeper  than  that  of 
all  other  religions  combined.  It  forms  the  essence  of  the  State 
religion  ;  and  while  other  religious  systems  are  simply  tolerated, 
this  alone  is  inculcated  by  Imperial  authority. 

The  Imperial  house  sets  the  example  in  what  it  regards  as 
the  highest  form  of  filial  piety.  Not  only  are  separate  shrines 
erected  for  the  ancestors  of  the  reigning  family ;  the  Emperor, 
according  to  immemorial  usage,  even  associates  them  with 
.Shangti,  the  Supreme  Kuler,  in  the  sacrifices  which,  as  high- 
priest  of  the  Empire,  he  makes  at  the  Temple  of  Heaven. 

The  visitor  who  is  fortunate  enough  to  gain  access  to  an  azure- 
colored  pagoda  on  the  north  of  the  principal  altar  may  see  there 
a  tablet  inscribed  with  the  name  of  Shangti  occupying  the  cen- 
tral place  of  honor,  while  the  tablets  of  ten  generations  of  the 
reigning  family  are  ranged  on  the  right  and  left.  Three  of  these 
never  set  foot  in  China,  nor  in  any  proper  sense  can  they  be  said 
to  have  occupied  the  Imperial  throne. 

Two  of  them  reigned  in  Liaotung,  over  a  single  province,  and 
one  was  the  chief  of  a  roving  tribe  in  the  wilds  of  Manchuria ; 
yet  on  the  occupation  of  China  by  their  descendants,  they  were 

all  canonized  or  raised  by  Imperial  decree  to  the  dignity  of  Em- 

«. 
peror. 

This  tendency  of  the  stream  of  honor  to  flow  upwards  is  pe- 
culiar to  China.  There  alone  is  it  possible  for  a  distinguished 
son  to  lift  his  deceased  parents  out  of  obscurity,  and  to  confer 
on  their  names  the  reflected  lustre  of  his  own  rank. 

It  is  not  easy  for  us  to  understand  the  force  of  the  motive 
which  is  thus  brought  to  bear  on  a  generous  mind  nurtured  un- 
der the  influence  of  such  traditions.  Kwang-tsung-yau-tsu,  "  Be 
.  careful  to  reflect  glory  on  your  forefathers,"  is  a  hortatory  for- 
mula, addressed  alike  to  the  soldier  on  tho  battle-field  and  the 
student  in  the  halls  of  learning. 

12 


266  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

If,  as  President  Hayes  asserted  in  a  recent  speech  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, "  those  who  show  the  greatest  respect  for  their  ancestors 
are  most  likely  to  be  distinguished  by  their  regard  for  posterity," 
the  Chinese  ought  to  excel  all  men  in  that  sentiment,  so  essential 
to  the  well-being  of  a  State ;  certain  it  is  that  their  worship  of 
ancestors  fosters  the  sentiment  in  a  most  effectual  manner. 

The  man  who  worships  his  forefathers,  and  believes  in  their 
conscious  existence,  naturally  desires  to  leave  offspring  who  shall 
keep  the  fires  burning  on  the  family  altar,  and  regale  his  own 
spirit  with  periodical  oblations.  Mencius  accordingly  lays  it 
down  as  a  maxim  that  "of  the  three  offences  against  filial  piety,, 
the  greatest  is  to  be  childless  " — a  dictum  which  has  contributed 
not  a  little  to  promote  the  practice  of  early  marriage,  and  the 
consequent  enormous  expansion  of  the  population  of  China. 
Viewed  in  this  latter  aspect,  the  reflex  influence  of  ancestral 
worship  may  be  considered  as  a  doubtful  boon ;  but  as  to  the 
underlying  sentiment,  were  it  wisely  directed  to  providing  for  t 
the  welfare  of  coming  generations  as  well  as  to  bringing  them 
into  existence,  its  beneficial  effects  would  be  of  inestimable  value. 

The  worship  of  ancestors  strengthens  the  ties  of  kinship,  and 
binds  together  those  family  and  tribal  groups  on  which  the  gov- 
ernment so  much  relies  for  the  control  of  its  individual  subjects. 
The  family  temple  serves  for  a  church,  theatre,  school -house, 
council-room,  and  indeed  for  all  the  varied  objects  required  by 
the  exigencies  of  a  village  community.  Domains  attached  to  it 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  sacrifices  are  held  as  common  prop- 
erty ;  and  glebe-lands  are  often  appended  which'  are  devoted  to 
the  support  of  needy  members  of  the  widely  extended  connec- 
tion. I  have  seen  a  town  of  twenty-five  thousand  people,  all  be- 
longing to  the  same  clan,  and  bearing  the  same  family  name.  A 
conspicuous  edifice  near  the  centre  bore  the  name  of  She-tsu- 
miao,  i.  e.  temple  of  our  first  ancestor.  Here  the  divergent  . 
branches  of  the  family  tree  met  in  a  common  root ;  and  all  the 
citizens,  under  the  cloud  of  incense  arising  from  a  common  sac- 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN  CHINA.  267 

rificc,  were  led  to  feel  the  oneness  of  their  origin ;  though  sep- 
arated, it  might  be,  by  half  a  millennium.  Such  a  village  resem- 
bles the  growth  of  a  banyan-tree — the  most  distant  column  in 
the  living  arcade,  though  resting  on  a  root  of  its  own,  still  main- 
taining a  vital  connection  with  the  parent  stock. 

Aside  from  its  social  and  economic  relations,  this  form  of  wor- 
ship exerts  a  religious  and  moral  influence  beyond  any  other  sys- 
tem of  doctrines  hitherto  known  to  the  Chinese  Empire.  In  a 
'sceptical  world,  and  through  ages  not  favored  with  that  revela- 
tion which  has  "  brought  life  and  immortality  to  light,"  it  has 
kept  alive  the  faith  in  a  future  life.  The  orthodox  son  of  Han 
regards  himself  as  living  and  acting  in  the  sight  of  his  ancestors. 
He  refers  his  confluct  to  their  supposed  judgment,  and  the  com- 
fort of  his  dying  hour  is  largely  determined  by  the  view  he  takes 
of  the  kind  of  welcome  he  is  likely  to  receive  when  he  meets 
the  shades  of  his  forefathers. 

"  How  could  I  look  my  ancestors  in  the  face  if  I  should  con- 
sent to  such  a  proposition  ?"  is  a  reply  which  many  an  officer 
has  given  to  a  temptation  to  betray  his  trust.  A  motive  which 
has  such  power  to  deter  from  baseness  may  also  be  potent  as  a 
stimulus  to  good ;  indeed,  in  respect  to  moral  efficacy  it  would 
appear  to  be  only  second  to  that  of  faith  in  the  presence  of 
an  all-seeing  Deity.  How  effective  it  must  be  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  a  Chinaman  bent  on  wounding'his  adversary 
in  the  keenest  point  curses,  not  the  obnoxious  individual,  but 
his  ancestors;  because  respect  for  them  is  the  deepest  of  all 
his  religious  sentiments. 

RELATION   TO    CHRISTIANITY. 

In  conclusion,  the  spectacle  of  a  great  nation  with  its  whole 
population  gathered  round  the  altars  of  their  ancestors,  tracing 
their  lineage  up  to  the  hundredth  generation,  and  recognizing 
the  ties  of  kindred  to  the  hundredth  degree,  is  one  that  partakes 
of  the  sublime.  It  suggests,  moreover,  two  questions  of  no  little 


268  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

interest:  1.  May  there  not  be  some  feature  in  the  Chinese  system 
which  we  might  with  advantage  engraft  on  our  Western  civili- 
zation ?  2.  In  propagating  Christianity  in  China,  what  attitude 
ought  missionaries  to  assume  towards  that  venerable  institution  ? 

If  it  be  objected  that  a  sufficient  answer  to  both  is  found  in 
the  tendency  of  ancestral  worship  to  fetter  progress  by  pledging 
men  to  the  imitation  of  the  past,  we  reply  that  such  an  effect 
is  by  no  means  necessary ;  that  Chinese  conservatism  is  due  to 
other  causes,  and  that  men  of  the  present  generation  may  grate* 
fully  acknowledge  their  obligations  to  the  past,  while  conscious 
that  they  themselves  constitute  the  highest  stage  in  the  skyward 
column  of  our  growing  humanity.  The  Vrilya,  we  are  told  in 
the  instructive  romance  of  Lord  Lyttdn,  with  all  their  advanced 
ideas,  still  preserved  with  reverence  the  portraits  of  their  early 
ancestors  who  had  not  yet  attained  the  human  shape. 

But  the  question  of  adopting  such  an  institution  is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  uprooting  it  from  a  soil  in  which  it  has  been 
prolific  of  blessings.  Is  it  merely  one  of  the  many  phases  of 
pagan  religion,  which,  however  they  may  have  subserved  the 
cause  of  morality  in  a  twilight  age,  must  be  regarded  as  purely 
obstructive  in  the  light  of  Christian  day,  or  may  we  not  recog- 
nize in  it  some  element  of  permanent  good  worthy  to  survive  all 
changes  in  the  national  faith  ?  As  a  matter  of  fact,  all  mission- 
ary bodies,  the  Jesuits  excepted,  have  taken  the  former  view. 
Perceiving  unmistakable  evidence  that  filial'reverence  had  grown 
into  idolatrous  devotion,  and  memorial  tablets  become  converted 
into  objects  of  idolatrous  homage,  they  have  declared  war  against 
the  entire  system. 

It  is,  I  confess,  a  suspicious  circumstance  to  find  the  Jesuits 
tolerating  the  traditional  rites,  while  Dominican  and  Francis- 
can, Greek  and  Protestant,  all  concur  in  rejecting  them.  Yet  I 
cannot  bring  myself  to  feel  that  the  latter  have  been  wholly 
right,  or  the  former  altogether  wrong.  Had  the  policy  of  the 
Jesuits  been  followed,  the  adherents  of  the  Church  of  Rome 


THE    WORSHIP    OF    ANCESTORS    IN    CHINA.  269 

might  have  been  spared  a  century  of  persecution,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  religion  of  India  might  have  been  supplanted  by 
that  of  Europe ;  for  nothing  has  ever  aroused  such  active  op- 
position to  Christianity  as  the  discovery  that  it  stands  in  irrec- 
oncilable antagonism  to  the  worship  of  ancestors.  The  deci- 
sion of  the  Sovereign  Pontiff  committing  his  Church  to  this 
position  reminds  us  of  the  unfortunate  reply  of  a  Saxon  mis- 
sionary to  Radbod,  the  King  of  Friesland.  The  King,  with  one 
foot  in  the  baptismal  font,  as  a  last  question,  asked  the  mission- 
ary whether  he  must  think  of  his  ancestors  as  in  heaven  or  in 
hell.  "In  hell,"  was  the  reply.  "Then  I  shall  go  with  my 
fathers,"  exclaimed  the  King,  as  he  drew  back  and  refused  the 
Christian  rite.  Millions  of  Chinese  on  the  brink  of  a  Christian 
profession  have  been  held  back  by  a  similar  motive. 

The  question,  I  admit,  is  one  of  duty,  not  of  expediency.  Yet, 
in  view  of  all  our  obligations  to  truth  and  righteousness,  there 
appears  to  me  to  be  no  necessity  for  placing  them  in  this  cruel 
dilemma.  The  idolatrous  elements  involved  in  ancestral  wor- 
ship are,  as  we  have  seen,  excrescences,  and  not  of  the  essence 
of  the  system.  "\Vhy.not  prune  them  off  and  retain  all  that  is 
good  and  beautiful  in  the  institution  ?  A  tablet  inscribed  with 
a  name  and  a  date  is  in  itself  a  simple  memorial  not  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  urns  of  ashes  which  cremationists  are  supposed 
to  preserve  in  their  dwellings,  and  not  half  so  much  so  as  pict- 
ures and  statues :  why  should  the  native  convert  be  required  to 
surrender  or  destroy  it?  The  semi-annual  visit  to  the  family 
cemetery  is  a  becoming  act  of  respect  to  the  dead :  why  should 
that  be  forbidden  ?  As  to  offerings  of  meats  and  drinks,  why 
should  they  not  be  replaced  by  bouquets  of  flowers,  or  the  peri- 
odical planting  of  flower-seeds  and  flowering  shrubs  ?  Even  the 
act  of  prostration  before  the  tomb  or  tablet  can  hardly  be  re- 
garded as  objectionable  in  a  country  where  children  are  required 
to  kneel  before  their  living  parents. 

That  which  is  really  objectionable  is  geomancy  and  the  invo- 


2*70  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

cation  of  departed  spirits.  The  simplest  ideas  of  science  are 
sufficient  to  dispel  the  One  form  of  superstition,  and  a  very 
small  amount  of  religious  knowledge  supplies  an  effectual  anti- 
dote to  the  other.  The  worship  of  ancestors  would  thus  be  re- 
stored to  the  state  in  which  Confucius  left  it,  or  rather  to  that 
in  which  he  himself  practised  it — as  merely  a  system  of  commem- 
orative rites. 

"Whatever  party  takes  this  position  will  have  an  immense  ad- 
vantage in  the  competition  for  proselytes.  Missionaries  may 
never  accept  it.  They  may  even,  in  combating  ancestral  wor- 
ship, believe  themselves  to  be  like  St.  Boniface,  felling  the  trees 
that  shelter  the  spirit  of  idolatry,  instead  of,  as  we  think,  clear- 
ing away  those  forests  that  are  necessary  to  the  fertility  and 
beauty  of  the  land.  But  the  native  Church  cannot  be  expected 
to  follow  servilely  in  the  footsteps  of  its  foreign  leaders.  When 
the  higher  classes  come  to  embrace  Christianity  in  great  num- 
bers, they  will  readily  leave  behind  them  their  Buddhism  and 
their  Taoism ;  but  the  worship  of  ancestors  they  will  never  con- 
sent to  abandon,  though  they  may  submit  to  some  such,  modifi- 
cations as  those  which  I  have  endeavored  to  indicate. 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  27-1 


SECULAR  LITERATURE.* 

»•  ( Viewed  as  a  Missionary  Agency.) 

IN  those  good  old  days  when  refZ&y  wit  and  prompt  expres- 
sion were  more  prized  in  the  pulpit  than  they  are  in  this  age  of 
written  sermons,  it  was  the  custom  in  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  to 
serve  a  candidate  with  a  text  just  as  he  rose  to  deliver  his  trial 
discourse.  On  one  such  occasion,  the  youthful  preacher  received 
instead  of  a  text  only  a  slip  of  blank  paper.  Holding  it  up  be- 
fore his  audience,  and  turning  it  slowly  round,  he  exclaimed, 
"  On  this  side  there  is  nothing,  and  on  that  side  there  is  nothing, 
and  out  of  nothing  God  made  the  world.'1'1 

In  undertaking  to  discuss  the  subject  of  "  secular  literature  "f 
assigned  me  by  the  committee,  I  find  myself  in  a  similar  pre- 
dicament. While  there  is  no  room  to  complain  that  there  is 
nothing  on  this  side  and  nothing  on  that,  the  subject  is  so  pol- 
yhedral that  the  writer  is  altogether  in  doubt  as  to  the  aspects 
under  which  he  is  expected  to  treat  it. 

Is  it  native  literature  or  foreign  literature  ?  Is  it  extant,  or 
only  existing  in  the  possibilities  of  the  future  ?  These  and  many 
more  such  questions  are  suggested  by  the  studied  ambiguity  of 
the  proposed  theme — a  theme  which  involves  no  proposition ; 
a  subject  without  a  predicate !  I  run  no  risk,  however,  in  con- 

*  This  paper  was  written,  by  request,  for  the  General  Conference  of  Mis- 
sionaries which  met  in  Shanghai,  May,  1877.  It  is  reproduced  here,  not  to 
show  the  present  state  of  the  Chinese,  but  to  indicate  what  remains  to  be 
done  to  impart  a  new  stimulus  to  their  intellectual  life. 

f  The  subject  as  given  was  expressed  in  the  two  words  that  stand  at  the 
head  of  this  page. 


272  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

eluding  that  the  subject  was  intended  to  be  of  a  practical  character, 
and  to  have  a  bearing  on  the  great  question  of  missionary  duty. 

This,  then,  is  the  sense  in  which  I  shall  understand  it — viz.,  as 
affording  a  basis  for  the  inquiry,  To  what  extent  is  it  desirable 
that  missionaries  should  endeavor  to  contribute  to  the  creation 
of  a  new  secular  literature  for  China  ? 

The  literature  in  question  is,  I  would  premise,  understood  to 
be  a  Christian  literature,  notwithstanding  the  descriptive  prefix 
"  Secular."  Not  professedly  religious,  it  is,  or  ought  to  be,  leav- 
ened with  religion,  as  the  atmosphere  is  impregnated  with  ozone ; 
not  as  an  extraneous  element,  but  as  something  evolved  from 
itself,  endowed  with  a  higher  energy,  and  enhancing  its  salutary 
influence. 

So  far,  however,  is  the  secular  literature  of  the  most  favored 
nations  of  Christendom  from  realizing  our  ideal  in  point  of  pu- 
rity and  spiritual  elevation  that  we  sometimes  doubt  the  pro- 
priety of  calling  it  Christian.  But  bring  it  into  comparison  with 
the  literature  of  a  heathen  people,  and  mark  how  it  glows  with 
the  warm  light  of  a  higher  world. 

Whence,  for  example,  come  those  noble  sentiments  which  per- 
vade every  branch  of  our  literature — law,  philosophy,  poetry,  fic- 
tion, and  history  ?  The  sentiment  of  the  brotherhood  of  man- 
kind, so  effective  in  checking  oppression  and  promoting  interna- 
tional justice — whence  comes  it,  but  from  that  Gospel  which 
teaches  us  that  "  God  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  for  to  dwell 
on  all  the  face  of  the  earth  ?"  That  sense  of  responsibility  which 
extends  to  the  minutest  affairs  of  daily  life,  and  inspires  the  sub- 
limest  achievements  of  heroism — making  "duty"  a  watchword 
in  the  day  of  battle — whence  comes  it  but  from  those  lessons  of 
responsibility  to  a  higher  power  which  constitute  the  Alpha  and 
the  Omega  of  the  Christian  system  ? 

Again,  the  idea  of  rights  as  correlative  to  obligations,  if  not 
peculiar  to  Christianity,  belongs  at  present  exclusively  to  the 
moral  and  political  systems  of  Christendom.  In  China  the  con- 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  273 

ception  is  wanting,  and  the  language  contains  no  word  for  its 
expression. 

Finally,  wliile  self-sacrifice  for  the  good  of  others  is  not  only 
taught,  but  beautifully  illustrated,  in  some  of  the  religions  of  the 
pagan  world,  it  was  reserved  for  Christianity  to  give  it  a  place 
in  the  hearts  and  homes  of  mankind — teaching  the  humblest  of 
them  to  cherish  the  spirit  and  imitate  the  example  of  its  Divine 
Founder.  Such  are  some  of  the  golden  threads  which  the  fingers 
of  religion  have  wrought  into  the  tissue  of  our  Western  thought, 
and  they  sparkle  on  every  page  of  our  standard  literature. 

M.  Troplong,*  a  learned  jurist  of  France,  has  shown  how  Chris- 
tianity infused  itself  into  the  body  of  Roman  law,  and  thence 
passed  into  the  jurisprudence  of  Europe.  Chateaubriand, f  in  his 
eloquent  pages,  points  out  how  it  inspires  modern  art,  and  fills 
the  domain  of  taste  and  imagination  with  new  elements  of  spir- 
itual beauty. 

Christianity  has  made  epic  poetry  almost  exclusively  her  own, 
inspiring  her  Dantes,  her  Miltons,  and  her  Klopstocks  to  sing  of 
spiritual  conflicts  in  loftier  strains  than  those  which  describe  the 
barbarous  wars  of  ancient  Greece.  Cowper,  Wordsworth,  and 
Coleridge  breathe  the  very  essence  of  Christianity,  and  even 
Shakespeare  is  full  of  it.  No  one  can  fail  to  perceive  that 
though  he  had  "  little  Latin  and  less  Greek,"  he  was  a  diligent 
student  of  the  English  Bible.  What  a  precious  little  Gospel  he 
compresses  into  three  lines  when  he  speaks  of 

"  Those  holy  fields, 

Over  whose  acres  walked  those  blessed  feet 
Which  fourteen  hundred  years  ago  were  nailed, 
For  our  advantage,  on  the  bitter  cross  1" 

Goethe's  Faust  deals  with  the  great  problem  of  human  proba- 
tion ;  and  though  he  drew  his  subject  from  mediaeval  legends, 
those  legends  were  founded  on  the  allegory  of  the  Book  of  Job. 

*  UInfluen.ee  du  Christianisme  sur  le  Droit  Civil  des  Romains. 
\  Genie  du  Christianisme. 


274  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

The  latest  poem  but  one  from  the  pen  of  England's  laureate  is 
religious,  or,  more  properly,  theological ;  and  one  of  the  latest 
compositions  of  the  laureate  of  the  other  hemisphere,  the  Divine 
Tragedy,  is  merely  a  versification  of  the  Gospel  history. 

Of  the  poet  it  may  be  said  that,  laboring  under  the  influence 
of  a  kind  of  inspiration,  "Himself  from  God  he  cannot  free"* 
— he  must  be  religious  or  irreligious ;  and,  according  to  the  cir- 
cumstances of  his  age,  pagan  or  Christian.  But  there  is  no  such 
necessity  laid  on  the  historian,  who  may,  if  he  choose,  marshal 
his  facts  in  the  spirit  of  the  positive  philosophy,  and  leave  the 
nations  to  work  out  their  own  destiny,  independent  of  what  is 
called  providential  control.  Yet,  in  general,  writers  of  this  class 
have  not  failed  to  recognize  the  hand  of  God  in  the  rise  and  fall 
of  empires ;  Cicero  makes  his  doubting  Academic  admit  its  pres- 
ence in  great  affairs  of  national  moment,  though  he  denies  its  ex- 
tension to  the  interests  of  the  individual  man.  Let  two  of  the 
most  eminent  speak  for  their  order. 

Says  M.  Guizot,f  "  In  the  very  nature  of  human  reason,  and 
of  the  relations  of  the  human  race  to  it,  lies  the  idea  of  the  des- 
tination of  the  race  for  a  supermundane  and  eternal  sphere.  .  .  . 
It  is  equally  clear  that  humanity  can  realize  the  idea  of  social 
perfection  only  as  a  rational  society  by  the  union  and  brother- 
hood of  the  human  family.  How  far  it  may  be  the  intention 
of  Divine  Providence  that  the  human  race  shall  realize  this  per- 
fection, it  may  be  impossible  to  determine.  Certain  it  is  that  it 
can  never  be  brought  about  by  any  mere  political  institutions : 
only  Christianity  can  effect  this  universal  brotherhood  of  nations, 
and  bind  the  human  family  together  in  a  rational,  i.e.  a  free, 
moral  society." 

Says  Mr.  Bancroft,J  "  That  God  rules  in  the  affairs  of  men  is 
as  certain  as  any  truth  of  physical  science.  .  .  . 

*  Emerson.  f  History  of  Civilization. 

J  Discourse  on  the  Character  of  President  Lincoln. 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  275 

"Eternal  wisdom  marshals  the  great  procession  *of  the  nations, 
working  in  patient  continuity  through  the  ages ;  never  halting 
and  never  abrupt ;  encompassing  all  events  in  its  oversight ;  and 
even  effecting  its  will,  though  mortals  may  slumber  in  apathy  or 
oppose  with  madness." 

So  much  for  history.  Time  would  fail  me  to  indicate  how 
completely  the  entire  body  of  our  higher  philosophy  is  pervaded 
with  a  spirit  orf  religion,  which  in  general,  if  not  always,  is  dis- 
tinctively Christian. 

"Waiving,  then,  further  illustrations,  such  is  the  religious  char- 
acter even  of  the  secular  literature  of  Christendom — a  literature 
which,  with  all  its  imperfections,  is  the  fitting  expression  of  the 
intellectual  life  of  a  Christian  people;  and  such  is  my  idea  of 
the  new  secular  literature  which  we  desire  to  see  springing  up 
on  the  soil  of  China. 

If  the  missionary  can  do  aught  to  bring  about  this  result,  who 
will  dare  to  assert  that  his  efforts  are  misdirected  ?  The  mis- 
sionary, it  will  be  said,  is  already  laboring  to  bring  about  this  re- 
sult, and  that  in  the  most  effective  way. 

This  I  admit  in  a  general  sense.  I  would  not  have  him,  like 
one  of  the  early  fathers,  expend  his  energies  in  the  vain  attempt 
to  produce  Christian  plays  which  shall  supersede  the  profane 
productions  of  the  pagan  stage.  Nor  would  I  have  him,  under 
the  impulse  of  religious  zeal,  intrude  into  certain  other  depart- 
ments to  which  the  taste  of  a  native  and  native  genius  dre  the 
only  passports.  Works  of  that  kind — nascuntur,  nonfiunt — will 
spring  up  spontaneously  when  the  soil  is  once  prepared.  Co- 
lumba  and  Augustine  were  predecessors  of  Shakespeare  and  Mil- 
ton ;  and  in  this  country,  whatever  works  most  efficiently  for 
the  implanting  of  Christian  thought  in  the  heart  of  the  nation 
will  also  lead  most  speedily  to  the  growth  of  a  secular  literature* 
which  shall  be  Christian  in  its  essential  characteristics. 

.But  are  there  not  other  departments  of  literary  effort  within 
the  general  field  described  as  secular  from  which  the  missionary 


276  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

is  not  debarred  by  any  sucli  irreversible  decree  of  nature,  and 
which  he  is  impelled  to  enter  in  order  to  insure  the  success  of  his 
leading  enterprise  ? 

That  there  are  such  will,  no  doubt,  be  conceded  by  the  great 
majority  of  the  members  of  this  Conference;  and  what  they 
are  I  shall  endeavor  to  indicate  in  the  sequel  of  this  paper.  In 
the  meantime,  permit  me  to  dispose  of  a  familiar  objection, 
which  grows  out  of  a  narrow  interpretation  of  the  great  com- 
mission, and  fortifies  itself  by  the  citation  of  honored  but  inap- 
propriate examples.  The  missionary,  it  is  said,  is  sent  forth  to 
preach,  and,  like  St.  Paul,  he  should  know  nothing  beyond  the 
special  subject  of  his  mission. 

Those  who  urge  this  objection  appear  to  forget  that,  in  the 
lapse  of  ages,  the  relations  of  the  Church  to  the  heathen  world 
have  undergone  a  complete  revolution.  In  the  days  of  St.  Paul, 
the  followers  of  Christ  were  few  and  despised;  now  they  are 
numerous  and  powerful,  and  hold  in  their  hands  the  destinies 
of  the  nations  of  the  earth.  Then  they  were  less  cultivated 
than  those  to  whom  they  were  sent,  and  had  but  one  book  to 
give  to  mankind.  Now  it  is  they  who  stand  upon  the  higher 
plane  and  have  possession  of  the  keys  of  knowledge.  They  are 
no  longer  armed  with  the  power  of  miracles ;  but  are  they  not 
clothed  with  other  powers  which  may  be  made  to  serve  as  an 
ample  substitute  in  the  way  of  attesting  and  enforcing  their 
principal  message  ? 

When  they  go  to  the  savage  tribes  of  Africa,  or  to -the  still 
ruder  savages  of  the  southern  seas,  their  superiority  is  at  once 
recognized. 

The  unlettered  native  worships  as  a  fetich  the  chips  of  wood 
which  the  missionary  has  taught  to  talk  by  means  of  mysterious 
» marks  which  he  has  traced  on  their  surface.  They  are  welcomed 
as  the  apostles  of  civilization,  and  no  narrow  prejudice  has  ever 
been  permitted  to  deter  them  from  instructing  the  natives. in 
the  arts- of  civilized  life. 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  277 

In  this  country  we  meet  with  a  very  different  reception ;  we 
come  to  a  people  who  were  highly  civilized  before  our  forefa- 
thers had  emerged  from  barbarism — a  people  who  still  assume, 
tacitly  or  openly,  that  they  occupy  a  position  of  unquestionable 
superiority.  Ilere,  therefore,  more  than  anywhere  in  the  world, 
do  we  need  to  avail  ourselves  of  every  circumstance  that  may 
help  to  turn  the  scale.  We  are  required  to  prove  our  commis- 
sion to  teach  men  spiritual  things  by  showing  our  ability  to  in- 
struct them  in  worldly  matters. 

It  was  observed  by  one  of  the  Jesuit  fathers,  a  long  time  ago, 
that  the  Chinese  were  so  advanced  in  culture  that  there  was  noth- 
ing in  which  Europeans  could  claim  pre-eminence  save  the 
knowledge  of  mathematical  science  and  the  verities  of  the 
Christian  faith. 

The  advantages  derived  from  these  two  sources  have  been  ren- 
dered all  the  more  conspicuous  by  the  marvellous  progress  of 
the  last  three  centuries ;  and  where,  I  ask,  is  the  necessity  of  re- 
nouncing those  of  the  one  class  in  order  to  communicate  the 
other  ?  Who  can  doubt  that  the  melancholy  fact  that  the  Nes- 
torian  missions  appear  to  have  sunk  like  a  stone  in  the  mighty 
waters,  without  leaving  so  much  as  a  ripple  on  the  surface,  was 
mainly  owing  to  the  circumstance  that  their  civilization  was  of 
a  lower  type  than  that  of  China  ?  On  the  other  hand,  is  it  not 
equally  evident  that  it  is  to  the  learned  labors  of  her  early  mis- 
sionaries, more  than  to  anything  else,  that  the  Catholic  Church 
owes  her  strong  foothold  in  this  Empire  ?  The  lesson  is  obvi- 
ous. In  the  work  of  converting  the  nations,  religion  and  science 
are,  or  ought  to  be,  a  wedded  pair,  each  lending  its  aid  to  the 
other ;  and  what  God  hath  joined  together,  let  man  not  put 
asunder. 

This  brings  me  to  point  out  those  departments  in  which  it  .is 
not  only  possible,  but  almost  imperative,  for  the  missionary  to 
make  contributions  to  the  secular  literature  of  the  land  we  live 
in.  They  may  be  considered  under  three  general  heads : 


278  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

1.  History  and  geography. 

2.  The  mathematical  and  physical  sciences. 

3.  The  mental  and  social  sciences. 

Books  of  the  first  class,  however  secular  in  character,  may 
fairly  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  preparation  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel.  For  every  fact,  to  borrow  the  language 
of  geometrical  analysis,  requires  the  aid  of  two  co-ordinates  to 
determine  its  position.  These  are  time  and  place,  history  and 
geography ;  and  without  these,  the  statements  of  the  Gospel 
narrative  would  be  as  vague  as  objects  floating  in  space,  which 
the  eye  is  unable  to  refer  to  any  definite  distance,  or  compare 
with  any  certain  standard  of  magnitude. 

So  generally  is  this  recognized  that  missionaries  have,  in  fact, 
made  sundry  efforts  to  supply  the  desiderata  in  both  divisions. 
A  sketch  of  general  or  universal  history  was  prepared  by  the 
late  Dr.  Gutzlaff ;  but  it  was  left  in  such  a  meagre,  imperfect 
state  that  I  am  glad  to  be  able  to  announce  that  two  distinct 
enterprises  in  the  same  direction  are  now  in  progress — one  based 
on  the  work  of  the  German  professor  Weber,  the  other  on  that 
of  the  English  historian  Tytler. 

Of  particular  histories,  I  may  mention  that  of  the  United 
States,  by  Dr.  Bridgman  ;  and  a  history  of  England,  by  a  living 
missionary.*  Both,  if  I  mistake  not,  have  enjoyed  the  honor- 
able distinction  of  being  reprinted  jn  Japan.  But  what  are 
these  among  so  many  ?  There  are  at  least  a  score  of  other  na- 
tions, ancient  and  modern,  who  have  acted,  or  are  now  acting, 
conspicuous  parts  in  the  great  march  of  humanity  ;  and  all  these 
are  waiting  for  the  muse  of  history  to  inspire  some  competent 
pen  to  make  them  known  to  the  Chinese,  and  to  emphasize  the 
providential  lesson  of  their  national  life. 

In  geography,  the  first  place  is  due  to  the  excellent  work  of 
the  late  Seu  Keyu,  a  former  governor  of  Fuhkien.  Combining 

*  The  Rev.  "W.  Muirhead,  London  Miss.  Soc. 


SECULAR   LITERATURE.  279 

historical  "notices  with  topographical  description,  and  full  of  val- 
uable information  expressed  in  the  choicest  style  (though  equal- 
ly replete  with  minor  blemishes),  it  produced  a  marked  sensation 
on  its  first  appearance,  nearly  thirty  years  ago ;  and  its  influence 
has  gone  on  extending  to  the  present  hour.  Its  liberal  and  ap- 
preciative views  of  foreign  countries  are  reputed  to  have  occa- 
sioned the  dismissal  of  the  author  from  the  public  service ;  and 
the  same  qualities  caused  him  to  be  recalled  after  a  retirement 
of  eighteen  years,  and  made  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  by  whose  authority  an  edition  of  his  book  was  pub- 
lished in  Peking.  .  . 

My  apology  for  mentioning  this  work,  if  it  required  any, 
would  be  found  in  the  fact  that  in  his  introduction  the  author 
refers  in  terms  of  high  commendation  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Abeel,  as 
the  chief  source  of  his  information.  Does  any  one  imagine 
that,  fervent  and  devoted  as  he  was,  the  direct  evangelistic  labors 
of  the  lamented  missionary  were  ever  half  as  effective  as  those 
spare  half -hours  which  he  placed  at  the  service  of  the  inquisitive 
mandarin  ? 

Three  smaller  works  on  this  subject  have  been  prepared  and 
published  by  missionaries,  not  to  mention  several  in  provincial 
dialects.  Of  these,  two  *  are  composed  in  such  a  style  as  to 
commend  themselves  to  general  readers;  and  they  have  both 
enjoyed  a  wide  popularity. 

But  no  one  has  thus  far  so  hit  the  mark  as  to  matter  and 
manner  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  further  efforts  in  the 
same  line.  The  sketching  of  physical  characteristics  is  compar- 
atively easy ;  but  the  delineation  of  the  varying  phases  of  civ- 
ilization is  a  task  of  great  delicacy,  and  one  which,  if  well  per- 
formed, cannot  fail  to  exert  a  profound  influence. 

In  astronomy  and  mathematics,  all  honor  is  due  to  the  labors 
of  the  Catholic  missionaries.  But  how  much  remains  to  be 

*  By  the  Rev.  W.  Muirhead  and  the  Rev.  R.  Q,  Way. 


280  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

done  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact,  for  which  those  pioneers 
of  Western  science  are  partly  answerable,  that  in  the  official 
text-books  the  earth  still  occupies  the  centre  of  the  universe ; 
and  that  other  fact,  for  which  they  are  not  responsible,  that  the 
Imperial  calendar  continues  to  be  encumbered  by  the  rubbish  of 
mediaeval  astrology ._ 

For  the  only  considerable  work  on  what  we  may  call  modern 
astronomy,  the  Chinese  are  indebted  to  a  Protestant  missionary,* 
who  has  also  given  them  a  pretty  full  course  of  modern  mathe- 
matics, including  the  higher  branches  of  analytical  geometry 
and  the  infinitesimal  calculus. 

The  worthy  author  of  these  excellent  translations  would  be 
the  last  to  claim  a  monopoly  of  the  field ;  and  to  me  it  appears 
that  there  is  still  room  for  a  double  series  of  works  on  the  same 
subjects — one  of  them  simple  and  popular,  the  other  more  com- 
plete and  extensive. 

When  the  literary  corporation  becomes  "inoculated  with  a  love 
of  exact  science,  the  most  salutary  reforms  may  be  anticipated 
in  the  general  character  of  the  national  education  ;  but  not  until 
the  new  astronomy  succeeds  in  expelling  the  earth  from  the 
place  which  belongs  to  the  sun  can  we  expect  their  earth-born 
pantheon  to  yield  the  throne  to  the  rightful  Sovereign  of  the 
Universe. 

As  to  the  other  branches  of  physical  science  new  to  the  West- 
ern world,  it  is  but  a  few  years  since  their  very  names  were  un- 
known to  the  Chinese.  Yet  already  are  there  indications  that 
China  is  swinging  to  the  tide — a  tide  which  no  anchor  of  Orien- 
tal conservatism  will  ever  be  able  to  resist.  On  these  subjects 
we  cannot  have  too  many  books,  provided  they  are  good  ones. 

It  is  to  the  diffusion  of  just  ideas  as  to  the  laws  of  nature  by 
.  means  of  scientific  publications  that  we  are  to  look  for  the  abo- 
lition of  that  degrading  system  of  geomancy  which  never  fails 

*  A.  Wylie,  Esq.,  London  Miss.  Soc. 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  281 

to  throw  its  shapeless  form  athwart  the  pathway  of  material 
progress. 

It  is  from  the  same  influence,  and  from  that  only,  that  we  are 
to  expect  the  extinction  of  popular  panics  and  judicial  execu- 
tions connected  with  a  superstitious  belief  in  witchcraft. 

The  sad  tragedy  of  Tientsin  witnesses  to  the  danger  of  the 
one ;  and  at  least  four  heads — one  that  of  a  woman — which  have 
fallen  under  the  axe  of  the  executioner  within  the  last  four 
years  testify  to  the  disgrace  of  the  other. 

It  was  science,  and  not  religion,  that  broke  the  power  of  such 
delusions  among  our  own  people ;  rendering  impossible  a  repeti- 
tion of  the  horrible  scenes  in  which  good  men  like  Sir  Matthew 
Hale  and  Dr.  Cotton  Mather  earned  an  unenviable  notoriety. 
In  this  connection  I  cannot  forbear  paying  a  passing  tribute  to 
those  periodicals,  monthlies  and  dailies,  scientific  and  popular, 
which  are  now  so  actively  employed  in  disseminating  the  helle- 
bore required  by  the  national  mind. 

Medical  science,  in  particular,  strikes  at  the  roots  of  a  host  of 
superstitious  errors ;  and  it  is  not  easy  to  overestimate  the  value 
of  the  books  which  our  medical  missionaries,  in  the  midst  of 
their  philanthropic  labors,  have  found  time  to  prepare  and  publish. 

As  yet,  however,  they  are  only  on  the  threshold  of  their  work. 
Their  mission  will  not  be  complete  until  the  present  generation 
of  unlicensed  empirics  shall  be  superseded  by  a  native  faculty 
well  versed  in  all  the  arts  and  sciences  that  belong  to  their  pro- 
fession. 

The  group  of  sciences  which  I  have  comprehended  under  the 
general  designation  of  mental  and  social  occupies  a  border-land 
so  close  on  the  confines  of  religion  that  one  is  surprised  to  find 
it  almost  as  untrodden  as  the  arctic  snows.  Practical  ethics  have, 
of  course,  not  been  neglected ;  and  certain  metaphysical  specula- 
tions have  alSo  come  forward  in  connection  with  topics  of  the- 
ology ;  but  the  scientific  treatment  of  any  one  in  the  whole  circle 
is  still  a  desideratum. 


282  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Indeed,  native  scholars  are  apt  to  insinuate  that  the  whole 
domain  of  what  they  csdl-singli  is  in  our  Western  literature  a 
barren  waste;  a  suspicion  which,  while  it  flatters  their  own  pride, 
enables  them  to  treat  with  patronizing  disdain  a  style  of  learning 
whose  highest  fruit  they  consider  to  be  the  production  of  a  cun- 
ning artificer. 

In  the  face  of  such  a  charge,  what  is  more  natural  than  that 
we  should  feel  a  desire  to  vindicate  the  credit  of  our  Christian 
culture — to  show  the  sceptical  followers  of  Chufutse  that  we  are 
familiar  with  subtleties  of  ^bought  which  their  language,  with  all 
its  boasted  refinement,  is  powerless  to  express? 

But  there  is  a  higher  motive  for  taking  up  the  gage ;  I  mean 
the  influence  exercised  by  writers  in  this  department  over  the 
weightier  interests  of  human  society.  The  cloudy  heights  of 
speculation  may,  indeed,  appear  to  be  cold  and  barren ;  yet  from 
them  issue  streams  which  sweep  over  the  lower  plains  of  human 
life  like  a  desolating  flood,  or,  like  the  Nile,  diffuse  beauty  and 
abundance. 

In  the  ancient  world,  the  triumph  of  Epicurus  was  fatal  to  the 
liberties  of  Rome.  In  modern  France,  the  guillotine  reaped  the 
harvest  sown  by  the  hands  of  an  atheistic  philosophy.  After  the 
restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  the  materialism  of  Hobbes  strengthened 
the  tyranny  and  encouraged  the  excesses  of  a  dissolute  court ; 
nor  can  it  be  doubted  that  the  Scotch  philosophy  of  common- 
sense  contributed  much  to  impart  that  intelligent  sobriety  which 
characterizes  the  British  mind. 

It  will  be  a  sad  day  for  Germany  when  men  of  the  stamp  of 
Schopenhauer  are  accepted  as  masters  in  her  schools  of  philos- 
ophy. 

The  Sung  philosophers  have  made  a  far  more  complete  con- 
quest of  China  than  the  Encyclopedists  did  of  France — the 
speculative  atheism  which,  after  the  lapse  of  a  thousand  years, 
still  steeps  the  educated  mind  of  this  country  being  mainly  de- 
rived from  that  source. 


SECULAR   LITERATURE.  283 

Books  on  these  subjects,  if  well  composed,  would  command 
the  attention  of, the  leading  classes  in  the  Empire.  A  good 
treatise  on  the  analysis  of  the  mental  powers  would  call  them 
away  from  groping  among  the  mists  of  ontology,  and  teach  them 
to  interrogate  the  facts  of  their  own  consciousness ;  astonishing 
them  not  less  by  revealing  to  them  their  hitherto  unsuspected 
mental  anatomy  than  works  of  another  class  do  by  unveiling 
the  structure  of  their  physical  frame.  The  grand  corollary 
would  be  the  nature  and  destiny  of  the  human  soul.  A  treatise 
on  formal  logic  would  scarcely  prove  less  fascinating  by  its  nov- 
elty, or  less  revolutionary  in  its  effect?  On  this  point  fas  cst  ab 
hoste,  etc.  The  late  Mr.  J.  S.  Mill  informs  us  that  his  father 
warned  him  against  making  any  open  attack  on  the  Christian 
faith,  as  likely  to  prove  abortive  and  to  recoil  upon  his  own 
head ;  but  suggested  that  a  successful  assault  might  be  made . 
from  the  masked  batteries  of  a  work  on  logic. 

With  Christianity  this  method  has  been  tried,  and  without 
any  serious  result ;  but  a  missile  which  rebounds  harmless  from 
the  plates  of  an  iron-clad  will  crush  through  the  timbers  of  a 
wooden  junk.  It  is  certain  that  the  medley  of  incompatible 
opinions  which  make  up  the  creed  of  a  Confucianist,  however 
formidable  when  approached  from  without,  could  not  long  hold 
out  against  the  force  of  logical  principles  applied  from  within. 
In  a  word,  with  the  learned  classes,  anything  which  tends  to 
show  them  how  to  investigate  their  own  mental  processes,  to 
weigh  arguments  and  try  evidence,  cannot  fail  to  contribute 
powerfully  to  their  abandonment  of  error  and  adoption  of  truth. 

In  the  field  of  political  economy,  soil  was  broken  some  fivc- 
and-twenty  years  ago  by  the  publication  of  a  small  brochure 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Morrison  school.*  Thus  far  this  effort 
has  not  been  followed  up  ;  and  yet  a  weighty  writer  in  the 
Fortnightly  Review,  referring  to  the  late  centennial  of  the 

*  By  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  late  of  Japan. 


284  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

"Wealth  of  Nations,  does  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  "  political 
economy  has  contributed  to  the  wealth  of  England  a  hundred- 
fold more  than  any  other  science." 

Dr.  Chalmers,  though  the  first  preacher  in  Europe,  did  not 
disdain  to  write  a  hook  on  political  economy ;  and  in  America, 
Dr.  "VVayland,  alike  eminent  as  a  scholar  and  a  pulpit  orator,  also 
prepared  a  text-book  on  the  same  subject.  A  science  which  so 
conspicuously  improves  the  temporal  well-being  of  all  classes 
must  of  necessity  promote  their  higher  interests. 

While  on  this  branch  of  the  subject,  I  cannot  refrain  from 
expressing  the  pleasure  I  have  had  in  perusing  two  books  from 
the  pen  of  a  German  missionary — one  of  them  a  view  of  the 
educational  institutions  of  Germany,  the  other  a  discourse  on 
civilization.  Both  are  calculated  to  make  a  decided  impression 
on  native  scholars,  though  the  latter  may  perhaps  awaken  a  feel- 
ing of  resentment  by  the  severity  of  its  criticism,  appearing  to 
assert  superiority  without  proving  it;  while  the  former  proves  it 
without  advancing  any  such  irritating  claim. 

Not  only  is  it  desirable  that  the  learned  classes  of  China 
should  be  made  acquainted  with  the  educational  institutions  of 
the  West,  it  is  of  equal  importance  that  they  should  obtain  some 
idea  of  the  nature  and  extent  of  our  polite  literature.  The  only 
satisfactory  way  for  them  to  arrive  at  this  is  by  learning  to  read 
it.  Yot  if  the  missionary,  in  the  intervals  of  more  serious  work, 
would  now  and  then  translate  a  poem  like  Pope's  Essay  on  Man, 
or  a  prose  composition  like  some  of  the  best  of  Johnson  or  Ad- 
dison,  the  effect  could  hardly  be  otherwise  than  happy — especially 
on  the  translator. 

In  conclusion,  we  have  taken  a  kind  of  balloon  voyage  over  a 
wide  region,  in  the  course  of  which  we  have  seen  how  the  land 
lies  without  pausing  to  map  down  its  minute  features.  We 
have  given  no  names  of  living  authors,  and  no  catalogue  of 
books;  our  sole  object  being  to  ascertain  in  what  departments 
of  secular  authorship  a  missionary  may  engage  with  most  ad- 


SECULAR    LITERATURE.  285 

vantage  to  the  great  cause.  Already  is  the  triumph  of  that  cause 
foreshadowed  by  what  a  secular  writer  describes  as  a  "  tendency 
towards  homogeneity  of  civilization."  ^ 

Japan  has  openly  adopted  the  Western  type  ;  and  China, 
without  committing  herself,  is  slowly  moving  in  the  same  direc- 
tion. The  growing  demand  for  books  on  scientific  subjects  is 
but  one  among  many  signs  which  point  to  an  approaching  intel- 
lectual revolution. 

This  demand,  it  is  true,  the  government  is  endeavoring  to 
supply  at  its  own  expense ;  and  many  excellent  works  are  pro- 
duced by  the  translators  whom  it  employs.  But  there  is,  as  we 
have  shown,  still  room  for  the  missionary,  and  a  call  for  his 
labors  in  this  department  which  scarcely  anything  but  conscious 
inability  would  justify  him  in  declining.  He  can  hardly  stop 
for  a  night  in  a  city  of  the  interior  without  some  of  its  best  in- 
habitants applying  to  him  for  books  of  science  and  for  instruc- 
tion on  scientific  subjects.  Is  it  wise  to  turn  a  deaf  ear  to  such 
appeals  for  intellectual  food?  Can  the  missionary  afford  to  do 
so  without  losing  prestige  as  a  representative  of  liberal  culture  ? 
His  preaching  will  lose  nothing  in  its  power  by  the  consecration 
of  a  portion  of  his  time  to  such  scientific  and  literary  labors  as 
lie  outside  of  the  beaten  path  of  pulpit  duty. 

In  view  of  the  intellectual  movement  now  beginning  to  show 
itself  alf  over  this  Empire,  I  would  urge  upon  missionary  societies 


*  The  phrase  in  the  text  is  due,  I  believe,  to  a  writer  in  the  Edinburgh 
Review.  A  similar  expression  occurs  in  the  7th  article  of  the  original  draft 
of  what  is  known  as  the  Burlingame  Treaty,  drawn  up,  not  as  generally  sup- 
posed by  Mr.  Burlingame,  but  by  the  late  Secretary  Seward — a  fact  which  I 
had  from  Mr.  Seward  himself.  The  article  was  rejected  by  China,  because 
she  was  not  prepared  to  commit  herself  to  a  change  of  coinage.  It  com- 
mences thus :  "  The  United  States  and  the  Emperor  of  China,  recognizing 
in  the  present  progress  of  nations  a  favorable  tendency  towards  unity  of 
civilization,  and  regarding  a  unit  of  money,  etc."  Vide  Mayers'  Treaties, 
p.  95. 


286  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

to  send  into  this  field  none  but  their  best  men,  and  upon  mis- 
sionaries now  on  the  ground  to  endeavor  to  rise  to  the  occasion ; 
to  take  for  their  models  such  men  as  Chalmers  and  Way  land, 
and  to  emulate  them  in  the  breadth  of  their  views  as  well  as  in 
the  fervor  of  their  .devotion. 


VISIT   TO    THE   JEWS.  287 


ACCOUNT  OF  A  VISIT  TO  THE  JEWS  IN  HONAN, 

FEBRUARY,  1866.* 

AN  intimate  relation  must  always  subsist  between  the  civil 
capital  and  the  commercial  metropolis  of  a  great  empire.  Not 
closer,  indeed,  is  the  connection  between  the  throbbing  heart  and 
the  scheming  brain ;  and,  however  remote  their  geographical  situ- 
ation, the  trade  that  centres  in  the  one  is  sure  to  suggest,  and  in 
the  end  control,  the  legislation  which  emanates  from  the  other; 
Avhile  political  influences  cannot  fail,  in  their  turn,  to  react  on  the 
interests  of  commerce. 

The  subject,  therefore,  on  which  I  am  called  to  address  you  is 
one  that  may  justly  challenge  a  deeper  interest  than  that  which 
is  given  to  some  unpractical  abstraction,  or  even  to  the  most  en- 
tertaining narrative  of  scenery  and  manners.  Not  altogether 
devoid  of  matter  for  the  studies  of  the  antiquarian  and  the 
physical  geographer,  its  chief  interest  lies  in  developing  a  new 
relation  between  Shanghai  and  Peking,  and  I  shall  deem  my 
forty  days  of  lonely  travel  well  employed  if  they  shall  contribute 
in  any  degree  to  pave  a  pathway  for  the  locomotive  or  open  a 
channel  for  the  steamer. 

What  I  have  to  lay  before  you  in  relation  to  my  journey  may 
be  comprised  under  the  following  topics : 

*  This  paper  wa3  prepared  for  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  and,  after  being  read  at  a  special  meeting  on  the  29th  of 
March,  1866,  was  published  in  the  Society's  Journal.  It  is  reproduced  here 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  information  it  contains  concerning  the  Jews  in 
China — a  subject  not  out  of  keeping  with  the  .foregoing  notices  of  various 
systems  of  religion  and  philosophy. 


288  CHINESE    EDUCATION,"  ETC. 

1st.  The  Imperial  road  leading  south  from  Peking. 

2d.  The  present  condition  of  the  Jews  in  Honan. 

3d.  The  navigation  of  the  Yellow  River. 

4th.  The  central  section  of  the  Grand  Canal. 

I.  As  to  the  importance  of  the  road  referred  to,  the  idea  the 
Chinese  entertain  of  it  is  expressed  by  an  inscription  at  the  head 
of  a  superb  bridge  near  the  city  of  Choh-chau — "/U  |3  $£  71/1, 
"  A  Thoroughfare  for  a  Myriad  Nations."  It  is  crossed  by  the 
envoys  of  several  feudal  states  as  they  bear  tribute  to  the  Em- 
peror; and  we  saw,  as  illustrating  the  inscription,  shortly  after 
it  had  passed  the  bridge,  the  Lewchewan  embassy  approaching 
the  capital  in  twelve  carts  adorned  with  yellow  flags,  on  which 
were  inscribed  the  characters  jlClii,  "  tribute  -bearers."  The 
ministers  of  our  Western  countries  have  never  crossed  that 
bridge,  but  (dare  we  allude  to  it,  in  their  present  altered  position  ?) 
some  of  them  have  actually  borne  those  yellow  banners ! 

Not  far  from  Pau-ting-fu,  seat  of  the  provincial  government 
of  Chihli,  and  about  a  hundred  miles  to  the  south  of  Peking,  the 
road  that  leads  to  the  maritime  provinces  branches  off  from  that 
which  conducts  to  the  heart  of  the  Empire.  The  former  bears 
to  the  southeast  until  it  strikes  the  Grand  Canal  in  the  vicinity 
of  Tientsin  in  Shantung ;  the  latter  pursues  its  southward  course 
for  more  than  three  hundred  miles  farther  until  it  crosses  the 
Yellow  River  at  K'ai-fung-fu.  This  is  the  road  over  which  I 
passed,  as  a  main  object  of  my  journey  was  to  make  inquiries 
respecting  the  Jews  in  Honan. 

The  distance  from  Peking  to  Kai-fung  is  1400  li,  or  about 
470  English  miles,  through  the  greater  part  of  which  the  high- 
road, as  it  winds  through  the  plain,  presents  to  the  distant  view 
the  aspect  of  a  river  with  wooded  banks — a  row  of  trees,  mostly 
willow  and  aspen,  being  planted  on  either  side  to  supply  shade 
to  travellers  and  timber  for  the  repair  of  bridges.  Its  course  is 
also  traced  by  other  landmarks,  which,  if  less  graceful,  are  more 
striking  to  the  eye  of  a  foreign  observer.  I  allude  to  the  police- 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  289 

stations  and  watch-towers  that  line  the  road  at  intervals  of  from 
three  to  five  li. 

The  police-stations,  though  presenting  in  conspicuous  charac- 
ters a  list  of  the  force,  together  with  an  official  statement  of 
their  duty  to  "  protect  the  traveller  and  arrest  robbers,"  were 
nearly  all  deserted.  The  tranquillity  of  the  country,  however, 
is  not  such  as  to  justify  this  official  negligence ;  for,  not  to  ad- 
duce other  evidence,  we  were  informed  that  at  one  point  of  the 
road  several  carts  had,  not  long  before,  been  carried  away  by  rob- 
bers. The  watch-towers,  built  of  brick  and  resembling  the  bastions 
of  a  city  wall,  are  intended  not  only  for  observation,  but  defence. 
In  front  of  each  are  several  little  structures  of  brick,  surmounted 
by  a  cone  or  semi-oval  elevation  covered  with  lime  and  resem- 
bling a  huge  egg.  These  are  always  five  in  number,  for  what 
reason  I  am  unable  to  say,  unless  it  is  because  the  Chinese  reckon 
five  colors  in  the  rainbow  and  five  virtues  in  their  moral  code. 
They  are  the  depositories  of  fuel,  which  is  supposed  to  be  ready 
for  the  lighting  of  signal-fires  on  the  occurrence  of  any  sudden 
alarm.  It  is  not,  however,  the  flame,  but  the  smoke,  that  they 
use  for  signals ;  and  the  substance  which  they  profess  to  employ 
for  this  purpose  as  possessing  certain  remarkable  properties  is 
Jg  ^,  "excrement  of  wolves."  Both  towers  and  beacons  are 
alike  falling  to  decay,  and  the  impression  made  by  their  neglect- 
ed ruins  is  that  the  day  is  not  far  distant  when  the  telegraph  of 
wolf's  dung  will  be  superseded  by  the  electric  wire. 

Through  this  portion  of  my  journey,  the  eye  of  the  traveller 
rests  on  but  one  natural  object  that  can  truly  be  denominated 
picturesque — this  is  the  long  range  of  Si-shan  hills  which,  meet- 
ing him  outside  the  gates  of  Peking,  runs  parallel  to  his  course 
for  nearly  four  hundred  miles.  The  highest  peaks  crowned  with* 
snow  and  glittering  like  a  thousand  gilded  domes,  and  their 
rugged  sides  resembling  the  wave-worn  shore  of  a  long-retired 
ocean,  they  form  at  first  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the  unvarying 
level  of  the  subjacent  plain.  But  when  the  traveller  has  looked 

13 


290  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

out  on  what  seems  to  be  the  same  landscape  each  morning  for 
half  a  month,  he  grows  weary  of  their  uniformity,  and  seeks  re- 
lief in  speculating  on  the  varied  wealth  that  lies  concealed  be- 
neath their  monotonous  surface. 

Silver  they  certainly  do  contain,  but  the  mines  of  Shan-si, 
whether  from  defective  engineering  or  other  causes,  are  no  longer 

O  O  '  O 

remunerative,  and  have  ceased  to  be  worked.  Of  gold  we  have 
no  notice;  but  the  "black  diamond"  is  found  there  in  rich 
deposits,  and  along  with  it  an  abundance  of  iron,  the  most 
precious  of  all  metals.  Iron-foundries  are  in  operation  in  at 
least  two  districts — one  in  Peking  and  the  other  in  Hoh-lu-hien, 
)|£  fife*  about  two  hundred  miles  to  the  south.  As  we  passed 
the  latter  place,  we  met  a  vast  number  of  carts  conveying  its 
productions  to  all  parts  of  the  province.  These  ranged  from 
kitchen  utensils  up  to  salt-boilers  five  or  six  feet  in  diameter. 
They  appeared  to  be  well  executed,  and  the  metal  of  good 
quality. 

Of  coal-deposits  there  seems  to  be  a  continuous  chain,  extend- 
ing from  the  verge  of  the  Mongolian  plateau  to  the  banks  of  the 
Yellow  River.  In  the  vicinity  of  Peking  there  are  beds  of  both 
bituminous  and  anthracite,  but  at  other  points  I  met  only  with 
the  latter  variety.  With  the  exception  of  places  near  the 
Hwang-ho,  it  is  transported  mainly  by  land  carriage — near  Pe- 
king, on  the  backs  of  camels;  farther  south,  on  mules,  donkeys, 
and  wheelbarrows.  The  consequence  is  that,  while  at  some 
points  it  is  cheap  and  abundant,  at  intermediate  places  it  be- 
comes so  costly  that  the  people  are  obliged  to  burn  reeds  and 
millet-stalks,  or  glean  a  scanty  supply  of  fuel  from  their  stubble- 
fields. 

•  Here,  then,  on  the  line  of  this  Imperial  road,  and  along  the 
base  of  this  range  of  hills,  is  the  track  for  the  first  grand  trunk 
railway  in  the  Chinese  Empire.  Not  only  would  it  find  close  at 
hand  iron  for  its  rails  and  coal  for  its  motive  power,  but  the 
carriage  of  coal  and  iron  to  all  the  cities  on  the  line,  including 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  291 

Peking  and  Tientsin,  would  constitute  one  of  tlie  richest  sources 
of  its  revenue.  With  Ta-ku  for  one  terminus  and  K'ai-fung-fu 
for  the  other,  it  would  pass  through  the  capital  of  the  Empire, 
through  two  provincial  capitals,  six  fu  cities,  and  an  indefinite 
number  of  choivs  and  hiens* 

Between  these  places  the  amount  of  local  travel  is  immense. 
At  some  points  I  estimated  the  number  of  vehicles  passing  in 
the  course  of  a  day  at  two  hundred,  employing  from  four  to  five 
hundred  mules ;  while  caravans  of  pilgrims  mounted  on  camels 
were  flocking  to  the  shrines  of  Shan-si,  as  the  Hindoos  do  to 
those  of  Benares.  The  supposed  railway  would  soon  supersede 
these  slow  and  painful  modes  of  locomotion.  Troops  would  be 
despatched  by  rail  instead  of  marching  by  easy  stages ;  and 
scholars  attending  the  metropolitan  examinations,  and  manda- 
rins with  their  large  retinues,  always  good  customers,  would 
cease  to  creep  through  the  Grand  Canal,  or  jolt  for  months  in. 
lumbering  carts,  and  learn  to  appreciate  our  locomotives  as  they 
do  our  steamers. 

My>  friend,  Mr.  Morrison,  late  her  Majesty's  Consul  at  Che-foo, 
proposes  the  extension  of  the  road  to  Hankow,  and  is  perhaps  at 
this  very  moment  engaged  in  exploring  the  route  in  that  direc- 
tion. 

But  why  indulge  in  dreams  of  railways  into  the  heart  of  the 
Empire,  when  the  Chinese  government  refuses  to  tolerate  a  tele- 
graphic line  to  the  mouth  of  the  Shanghai  River  ?  f 

They  may  not,  I  confess,  be  destined  to  a  speedy  realization, 
but  to  me  they  are  worth  all  they  cost,  as  a  relief  from  thoughts 
of  present  discomfort  What  better  preparation  for  such  dream- 
ing than  to  arrive  at  a  miserable  inn  with  sore  feet  and  aching 
head,  after  driving  from  five  in  the  morning  till  nine  at  night  to 

*  Cities  of  the  third  and  fourth  orders. 

f  A  telegraph  between  those  points  is  now  in  operation,  and  a  railway 
was  not  long  ago  opened  in  the  same  place  by  foreign  enterprise ;  but  official 
jealousy  soon  put  an  end  to  its  existence. 


292  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

make  out  the  distance  of  forty  miles  ?  You  throw  yourself  down 
in  .an  apartment  without  floor  and  without  windows;  without  a 
fire,  as  I  found  in  many  places,  to  mitigate  the  rigor  of  the  sea- 
son, and  without  a  softer  spot  than  a  pavement  of  brick  on  which 
to  rest  your  weary  limbs.  Weird  fancy  waves  over  you  her  crea- 
tive wand,  and  old  memories  mingle  with  present  realities.  In- 
stead of  the  shout  of  your  mule-driver  and  the  rumbling  of  his 
cart-wheels,  you  hear  the  shriek  of  the  steam-whistle,  ths  rush  of 
the  train,  and  the  click  of  the  telegraph.  The  dingy  hovel  rises 
into  a  stately  station-house — its  carpeted  saloons  thronged  by 
people  of  all  the  provinces,  and  the  ticket-office  besieged  by  an 
eager  crowd.  You  press  to  the  front,  hear  your  money  clink  on 
the  counter,  and  are  just  clutching  the  coupon  that  promises  you 
a  passage  over  the  rails  to  Hankow  at  the  rate  of  1000  It  per 
diem,  when  the  crowing  cock  awakes  you  to  another  day  of  toil 
and  pain. 

II.  The  existence  in  Ilonan  of  a  colony  of  Jews,  who  profess 
to  have  entered  China  as  early  as  the  dynasty  of  Han,  has  long 
been  known  to  the  Christian  world.  They  were  discovered  by 
Father  Ricci  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  full  inquiries  con- 
cerning their  usages  and  history  subsequently  made  by  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries who  resided  at  K'ai-fung-fu.*  In  1850  a  deputation  of 
native  Christians  was  sent  among  them  by  the  Bishop  of  Victoria 
and  the  late  Dr.  Medhurst.  Two  of  the  Jews  were  induced  to 
come  to  Shanghai,  and  some  of  their  Hebrew  manuscripts  were 
obtained ;  but  up  to  the  date  of  my  journey,  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury and  a  half,  they  had  not,  so  far  as  we  are  informed,  been 
visited  by  any  European.  It  became,  therefore,  a  matter  of 
interest  to  ascertain  their  present  condition ;  and  this,  as  I 

*  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  in  earlier  ages  there  were  many  other 
congregations  of  Jews  located  in  different  parts  of  China.  A  synagogue  at 
Ningpo,  now  extinct,  formerly  contributed  one  or  more  copies  of  the  Law 
to  their  brethren  in  Honan ;  and  Chinese  writers  speak  of  a  sect  called 
jij£  &  ,  supposed  to  be  Jews. 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  293 

have  remarked,  was  the  chief  consideration  that  induced  me  to 
make  K'ai-fung-fu  a  point  in  the  course  of  my  inland  travels. 
What  others  may  have  published  I  shall  not  repeat,  but  as  con- 
cisely as  possible  lay  before  you  a  resume  of  my  own  observa- 
tions. 

Arriving  in  their  city  on  the  17th  of  February,  I  inquired  for 
the  Jewish  synagogue,  but,  getting  no  satisfactory  answer  from 
the  pagan  innkeeper,  I  went  for  information  to  one  of  the  Ma- 
hometan mosques,  of  which  there  are  six  within  the  walls.  I 
was  well  received  by  the  mufti,  and  the  advent  of  a  stranger 
from  the  West,  who  was  reported  to  be  a  worshipper  of  the 
True  Lord,  drew  together  a  large  concourse  of  the  faithful.  At 
the  request  of  the  mufti,  holding  a  New  Testament  in  my  hand, 
I  addressed  them  in  relation  to  the  contents  of  the  Holy  Book 
of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  name  he  pronounced  with  reverence  as 
that  of  one  of  the  most  illustrious  of  their  prophets.  The  Jews 
he  denounced  as  Kafirs  (unbelievers),  and  evinced  no  very  poig- 
nant sorrow  when  he  informed  me  that  their  synagogue  had 
come  to  desolation.  It  was,  he  assured  me,  utterly  demolished, 
and  the  people  who  had  worshipped  there  were  impoverished  and 
scattered  abroad.  "  Then,"  said  I,  "  I  will  go  and  see  the  spot 
on  which  it  stood ;"  and,  directing  my  bearers  to  proceed  to  the 
place  indicated  by  the  mufti,  I  passed  through  streets  crowded 
with  curious  spectators  to  an  open  square,  in  the  centre  of  which 
there  stood  a  solitary  stone. 

On  one  side  was  an  inscription  commemorating  the  erection 
of  the  synagogue  in  the  period  Lung-lung,  of  the  Sung  dynasty, 
about  A.D.  1183,  and  on  the  other  a  record  of  its  rebuilding  in 
the  reign  of  Hung-che,  of  the  Ming  dynasty ;  but  to  my  eye  it 
uttered  a  sadder  tale — not  of  building  and  rebuilding,  but  of  de- 
cay and  ruin.  It  was  inscribed  with  Ichabod — "  The  glory  is  de- 
parted." Standing  on  the  pedestal,  and  resting  my  right  hand 
on  the  head  of  that  stone,  which  was  to  be  a  silent  witness  of 
the  truths  I  was  about  to  utter,  I  explained  to  the  expectant 


294  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

multitude  my  reasons  for  "  taking  pleasure  in  the  stones  of 
Israel  and  favoring  the  dust  thereof."  * 

"  Are  there  among  you  any  of  the  family  of  Israel  ?"  I  in- 
quired. "  I  am  one,"  responded  a  young  man,  whose  face  cor- 
roborated his  assertion ;  and  then  another  and  another  stepped 
forth,  until  I  saw  before  me  representatives  of  six  out  of  the 
seven  families  into  which  the  colony  is  divided.  There,  on  that 
melancholy  spot  where  the  very  foundations  of  the  synagogue 
had  been  torn  from  the  ground,  and  there  no  longer  remained 
one  stone  upon  another,  they  confessed  with  shame  and  grief 
that  their  holy  and  beautiful  house  had  been  demolished  by  their 
own  hands.  It  had,  they  said,  for  a  long  time  been  in  a  ruinous 
condition.  They  had  no  money  to  make  repairs ;  they  had  lost 
all  knowledge  of  the  sacred  tongue ;  the  traditions  of  the  fathers 
were  no  longer  handed  down,  and  their  ritual  worship  had  ceased 
to  be  observed.  In  this  state  of  things,  they  had  yielded  to  the 

*  Much  interesting  information  touching  the  Jews  in  China  may  be  found 
in  the  twentieth  volume  of  the  Chinese  Repository,  which  contains  also  the 
report  of  the  deputation  above  referred  to.  From  this  source  I  borrow  an 
extract  from  the  inscription  on  that  monumental  stone :  "  With  respect  to 
the  religion  of  Israel,  we  find  that  our  first  ancestor  was  Adam.  The 
founder  of  the  religion  was  Abraham ;  then  came  Moses,  who  established 
the  Law  and  handed  down  the  sacred  writings.  During  the  dynasty  of  Han 
[B.C.  200-A.D.  226]  this  religion  entered  China.  In  the  second  year  of 
Hiao-tseng,  of  the  Sung  dynasty  [A.D.  1164],  a  synagogue  was  erected  in 
K'ai-fung-fu.  Those  who  attempt  to  represent  God  by  images  or  pictures 
do  but  vainly  occupy  themselves  with  empty  forms.  Those  who  honor  and 
obey  the  sacred  writings  know  the  origin  of  all  things ;  and  eternal  reason 
and  the  sacred  writings  mutually  sustain  each  other  in  testifying  whence 
men  derived  their  being.  All  those  who  profess  this  religion  aim  at  the 
practice  of  goodness,  and  avoid  the  commission  of  vice."  It  is  affecting  to 
think  of  this  solitary  stone  continuing  to  bear  its  silent  testimony  after  the 
synagogue  has  fallen,  and  the  voice  of  its  worshippers  has  ceased  to  be 
heard.  Like  that  which  records  the  story  of  the  Nestorian  missions  in 
China,  it  deserves  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  precious  monuments 
of  religious  history. 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  295 

pressure  of  necessity,  and  disposed  of  the  timbers  and  stones  of 
that  venerable  edifice  to  obtain  relief  for  their  bodily  wants. 

In  the  evening  some  of  them  came  to  my  lodgings,  bringing 
for  my  inspection  a  copy  of  the  Law  inscribed  on  a  roll  of  parch- 
ment, without  the  points,  and  in  a  style  of  manuscript  which  I 
was  unable  to  make  out,  though  I  had  told  them  rather  impru- 
dently that  I  was  acquainted  with  the  language  of  their  sacred 
books.*  The  next  day,  the  Christian  Sabbath,  they  repeated 
their  visit,  listening  respectfully  to  what  I  had  to  say  concerning 
the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  and  answering  as  far  as  they  were  able 
rny  inquiries  as  to  their  past  history  and  present  state. 

Two  of  them  appeared  in  official  costume,  one  wearing  a  gilt 
and  the  other  a  crystal  button ;  but,  far  from  sustaining  the 
character  of  this  people  for  thrift  and  worldly  prosperity,  they 
number  among  them  none  that  are  rich  and  but  few  who  are 
honorable.  Some,  indeed,  true  to  their  hereditary  instincts,  are 
employed  in  a  small  way  in  banking  establishments  (the  first 
man  I  met  was  a  money-changer) ;  others  keep  fruit-stores  and 
cake-shops,  drive  a  business  in  old  clothes,  or  pursue  various 
handicrafts,  while  a  few  find  employment  in  military  service. 
The  prevalence  of  rebellion  in  the  central  provinces  for  the  last 
thirteen  years  has  told  sadly  on  the  prosperity  of  K'ai-fung-fu, 
and  the  Jews  have,  not  unlikely  owing  to  the  nature  of  their 
occupations,  been  the  greatest  sufferers. 

Their  number  they  estimated,  though  not  very  exactly,  at  from 
three  to  four  hundred.  They  were  unable  to  trace  their  tribal 
pedigree,  keep  no  register,  and  never  on  any  occasion  assemble 
together  as  one  congregation.  Until  recently  they  had  a  com- 


*  I  afterwards  obtained  from  them  two  rolls  of  the  Law,  and  after  a  little 
practice  found  myself  able  to  read  them  with  sufficient  ease ;  the  chief  dif- 
ficulty being  the  want  of  the  vowel-points.  One  of  these  rolls  I  procured 
for  my  friend  Dr.  S.Weils  Williams,  who  presented  it  to  the  American  Bible 
Society. 


296  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

mon  centre  in  their  synagogue,  though  their  liturgical  service 
had  long  been  discontinued.  But  the  congregation  seems  to  be 
following  the  fate  of  its  building.  No  bond  of  union  remains, 
and  they  are  in  danger  of  being  speedily  absorbed  by  Mahom- 
etanism  or  heathenism.  One  of  them  has  lately  become  a  priest 
of  Buddha,  taking  for  his  title  pen  tau  ($.  j^),  which  sig- 
nifies "  one  who  is  rooted  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Truth !"  The 
large  tablet  that  once  adorned  the  entrance  of  the  synagogue, 
bearing  in  gilded  characters  the  name  Israel  ( —  lj]|  ^  ^,  E-sz- 
lo-yeh),  has  been  appropriated  by  one  of  the  Mahometan 
mosques ;  and  some  efforts  have  been  made  to  draw  over  the 
people,  who  differ  from  the  Moslems  so  little  that  their  heathen 
neighbors  have  never  been  able  to  distinguish  them  by  any  other 
circumstance  than  that  of  their  picking  the  sinews  out  of  the 
flesh  they  eat  —  a  custom  commemorative  of  Jacob's  conflict 
with  the  angel.* 

One  of  my  visitors  was  a  son  of  the  last  of  their  rabbis,  who, 
some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  died  in  the  province  of  Kan-suh. 
With  him  perished  the  last  vestige  of  their  acquaintance  with 
the  sacred  tongue.  Though  they  still  preserve  several  copies  of 
the  Law  and  Prophets,  there  is  not  a  man  among  them  who  can 
read  a  word  of  Hebrew  ;  and  not  long  ago  it  was  seriously  pro- 
posed to  expose  their  parchments  in  the  market-place,  in  hopes 
they  might  attract  the  attention  of  some  wandering  Jew  who 
would  be  able  to  restore  to  them  the  language  of  their  fathers. 
Since  the  cessation  of  their  ritual  worship,  their  children  all 

*  These  Jews,  in  commemoration  of  the  principal  land  of  their  sojourn  on 
their  way  to  China,  formerly  called  their  religion  ^  i^JLfc,  the  "  religion 
of  India."  This  name,  being  in  sound,  though  not  in  orthography,  liable  to 
be  confounded  with  that  of  the  Roman  Catholics,  was  later  on  abandoned 
through  fear  of  being  involved  in  the  fierce  persecutions  which  fell  on  the 
Christians  of  China.  They  then  called  themselves  $|f  $j  Jjfe,  Tiao-kin- 
kiao,  "sinew -pickers,"  from  a  name  first  given  them  in  derision  by  their 
heathen  neighbors.  See  Gen.  xxii.  32. 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  297 

grow  up  without  the  seal  of  the  covenant.  The  young  genera- 
tion are  uncircumcised,  and,  as  might  be  expected,  they  no  longer 
take  pains  to  keep  their  blood  pure  from  intermixture  with  Gen- 
tiles. One  of  them  confessed  to  me  that  his  wife  was  a  heathen. 
They  remember  the  names  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  Feast 
of  Unleavened  Bread,  and  a  few  other  ceremonial  rites  that  were 
still  practised  by  a  former  generation ;  but  all  such  usages  are 
now  neglected,  and  the  next  half-century  is  not  unlikely  to  put 
a  period  to  their  existence  as  a  distinct  people. 

Near  the  margin  of  the  Poyang  lake  there  stands  a  lofty  rock, 
so  peculiar  and  solitary  that  it  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  "  lit- 
tle orphan."  The  adjacent  shore  is  low  and  level,  and  its  kin- 
dred rocks  are  all  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake,  whence  it 
seems  to  have  been  torn  away  by  some  violent  convulsion,  and 
planted  immovably  in  the  bosom  of  the  waters.  Such  to  me 
appeared  that  fragment  of  the  Israelitish  nation.  A  rock  rent 
from  the  sides  of  Mount  Zion  by  some  great  national  catastro- 
phe and  projected  into  the  central  plain  of  China,  it  has  stood 
there,  while  the  centuries  rolled  by,  sublime  in  its  antiquity  and 
solitude.  It  is  now  on  the  verge  of  being  swallowed  up  by  the 
flood  of  paganism,  and  the  spectacle  is  a  mournful  one.  The 
Jews  themselves  are  deeply  conscious  of  their  sad  situation,  and 
the  shadow  of  an  inevitable  destiny  seems  to  be  resting  upon 
them. 

Poor  unhappy  people !  as  they  inquired  about  the  destruction 
of  the  holy  city  and  the  dispersion  of  their  tribes,  and  referred 
to  their  own  decaying  condition,  I  endeavored  to  comfort  them 
by  pointing  to  Him  who  is  the  consolation  of  Israel.  I  told 
them  the  straw  had  not  been  trodden  underfoot  until  the  ripe 
grain  had  been  gathered  to  disseminate  in  other  fields.  The 
dikes  had  not  been  broken  down  until  the  time  came  for  pour- 
ing their  fertilizing  waters  over  the  face  of  the  earth.  Chris- 
tian civilization,  with  all  its  grand  results,  had  sprung  from 
a  Jewish  root,  and  the  promise  to  Abraham  was  already  ful- 

13* 


298  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

filled  that  "  in  his  seed  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  should  be 
blessed."  * 

III.  From  K'ai-fung-fu  I  proceeded  in  a  northeasterly  direc- 
tion as  far  as  Kiuh-fu,  the  Mecca  of  the  Empire,  which  I  reached 
after  a  circuitous  journey  of  eight  days.  It  is  here  that  the  re- 
mains of  Confucius  have  slept  for  three-and-twenty  centuries, 
while  his  doctrines  have  swayed  the  mind  of  the  nation  with  un- 
diminished  authority,  and  his  memory  continued  as  green  as 
the  cypress  grove  that  shades  his  sepulchre.  I  yield  to  few  in 
respect  for  the  character  of  that  illustrious  sage,  who  in  the  in- 
scriptions that  surround  his  temple  is  styled  j^J  jtt  £j|j  =^,  "  the 
model  teacher  of  all  ages,"  and  of  whom  an  emperor  of  the 
Mings  has  said  with  some  truth  that  "  but  for  Confucius,  China 
would  have  remained  shrouded  in  the  gloom  of  a  rayless  night." 
I  shall  not,  however,  pause  to  describe  his  mausoleum,  because 
it  is  a  leading  topic  in  the  paper  of  my  friend  Mr.  Williamson, 
whose  path  I  crossed  at  that  point,  and  especially  because  in 
this  part  of  my  journey  I  met  with  a  more  interesting  object — 
the  Yellow  River,  f 

*  Three  years  after  the  date  of  this  visit,  I  addressed  a  letter  to  the  editor 
of  the  Jewish  Times  of  New  York,  embodying  the  observations  here  given, 
and  proposing  the  formation  of  a  Jewish  mission.  The  appeal  excited  some 
discussion  among  the  Jews,  but  produced  no  further  result,  if  I  except  sun- 
dry letters  in  Hebrew,  which  I  was  requested  to  forward  to  a  people  who 
had  forgotten  the  language  of  their  fathers.  In  my  letter  to  the  Jewish 
Times,  I  said,  and  now  repeat,  that  "the  rebuilding  of  the  synagogue  is 
indispensable  to  give  this  moribund  colony  a  rallying-point  and  bond  of 
union ;  and  that  without  this  nothing  else  can  save  them  from  extinction." 

f  The  mausoleum  of  the  Sage  surpasses  in  grandeur  anything  I  had  be- 
fore seen  in  China.  Extending  in  a  series  of  courts,  each  enclosed  by  build- 
ings, along  an  entire  side  of  the  city,  it  presents  the  aspect  of  a  little  city  in 
itself;  though  ordinarily  a  deserted  one,  for  it  is  only  on  the  days  of  the 
new  and  full  moon  that  it  is  visited  by  worshippers ;  and  the  pilgrims  are 
few  for  a  place  of  such  renown.  The  architecture  is  like  that  of  most  Con- 
fucian temples,  but  on  a  larger  scale.  The  whole  space  is  girdled  and  inter- 
l>y  canals  without  water,  which  appear  to  have  been  excavated  solc-ly 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  299 

The  sepulchre  of  wisdom  would  detain  us  with  the  hoary 
past ;  but  the  fierce  and  turbid  stream  carries  our  thoughts  irre- 
sistibly to  the  future.  Spurning  the  feeble  efforts  of  the  natives, 
it  waits  to  be  subdued  by  the  science  of  Western  engineers ;  and, 
too  rapid  for  the  creeping  junk,  it  has  rushed  into  the  sea  at  a 
more  accessible  point  than  its  ancient  mouth,  seemingly  for  the 
very  purpose  of  inviting  our  steam -navigation.  I  crossed  it  at 
three  points — once  near  K'ai-fung,  where  it  still  continues  in  its 
old  channel ;  once  at  Ts'ing-kiang-pu,  where  I  walked  over  dry- 
shod  at  a  place  where  the  junks  that  carried  "Lord  Amherst" 
in  1816  offered  incense  to  secure  a  favorable  passage;  the  third 
point  was  near  Tung-ping-chau,  where  it  was  hastening  in  its 
new  course  towards  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li. 

When  I  first  saw  it,  I  felt  disappointed.  The  huge  embank- 
ment, crenellated  like  the  wall  of  a  fortress,  winding  through 
the  plain  as  the  Great  Wall  winds  over  the  mountains  of  the 
North,  almost  as  huge  a  monument  of  industry,  and  vastly  more 
expensive,  excited  my  expectations.  But  the  river  itself  lay 
hidden  between  its  banks,  waiting  for  the  melting  of  the  winter 
snows  to  call  it  forth.  Equal  in  length  to  the  Yang-tsze-kiang, 

for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  an  occasion  for  the  construction  of  a  number 
of  pretty  bridges.  The  principal  shrine  is  surrounded  by  a  grove  of  vener- 
able cedars,  one  of  which  is  said  to  have  been  planted  by  the  hand  of  Con- 
fucius himself.  In  another  court  stands  a  forest  of  marble  columns  all  coh- 
ered with  inscriptions  in  praise  of  the  great  master.  Each  of  these  was 
erected  by  an  Imperial  hand ;  and  dynasties  as  far  back  as  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era  are  here  represented;  but  the  legends  are  in  many 
cases  altogether  obliterated.  What  is  stone  or  brass  to  a  man  who  has  an 
empire  for  his  monument?  Outside  of  the  city,  and  approached  by  an  ave- 
nue of  stately  cedars,  is  seen  the  spacious  cemetery  of  the  family  of  K'ung. 
Here,  beneath  a  mound  which  has  grown  to  the  dimensions  of  a  small  hill, 
sleep  the  mortal  remains  of  the  Great  Sage,  surrounded  by  the  graves  of 
thousands  of  his  posterity.  The  very  grass  on  this  mound  is  deemed  holy, 
and  stalks  of  it  put  up  in  small  packets  are  carried  to  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try to  be  used  in  divination. 


300  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

it  could  not  at  that  season  boast  one  twentieth  of  its  volume  of 
water.  The  diagonal  pursued  by  the  ferry-boat  at  K'ai-fung-fu, 
as  it  is  swept  down  by  the  current,  is  estimated  in  the  Chinese 
guide-book  at  no  more  than  two  li ;  the  actual  width  opposite 
the  ferry-landing  is  less  than  half  that  distance ;  and  where  its 
volume  is  contracted  by  a  sudden  bend,  the  breadth  is  reduced, 
if  I  may  trust  to  ocular  measurement,  to  less  than  one  hundred 
yards.  The  greatest  depth  at  the  Kai-fung  crossing  at  the  then 
low  stage  of  water  did  not  exceed  six  or  seven  feet,  so  that  the 
ferrymen  were  able  to  use  their  poles  all  the  way  from  one 
bank  to  the  other.  The  Peiho  below  Tientsin  makes  quite  as 
respectable  a  figure ;  and  I  could  hardly  have  realized  that  I  was 
viewing  one  of  the  chief  rivers  of  the  East  but  for  the  enormous 
embankments,  which  are  so  wide  apart  as  to  make  allowance  for 
an  expansion  of  seven  miles.  At  the  point  wrhere  I  crossed  it 
in  Shantung,  it  had  gained  considerably  both  in  breadth  and 
depth,  and  thence  to  the  sea  it  is,  no  doubt,  much  better  adapted 
to  navigation  by  large  vessels. 

In  this  part  of  its  course  the  number  of  junks  is  greatly  in- 
creased ;  but  in  Honan  there  appeared  to  be  little  communica- 
tion between  distant  points.  Numerous  boats  were  carrying 
coal  to  Fung-hien,  not  far  from  the  capital ;  but  I  was  unable  to 
discover  one  that  was  bound  for  a  more  distant  port.  I  was  re- 
solved, if  I  could  obtain  any  kind  of  craft,  to  commit  myself  to 
the  current  and  explore  the  river  through  its  new  channel ;  but 
my  efforts  were  in  vain.  No  boat  was  lying  at  the  crossing  ex- 
cept those  that  belonged  to  the  ferry ;  and  I  was  informed  that 
all  the  intercourse  between  the  capitals  of  Honan  and  Shantung, 
distant  only  three  hundred  miles,  and  both  situated  on  the  bank 
of  the  river,  is  carried  on  by  land.  Of  the  truth  of  this  state- 
ment I  had  ocular  evidence  in  the  large  number  of  carts  and 
wheelbarrows  which  we  met  on  the  way,  a  whole  fleet  of  the 
latter  with  sails  spread  scudding  before  the  wind,  and  reminding 
us  of  what  Milton  savs  of  the — 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  301 

"  Barren  plains 

Of  Sericana,  where  Chineses  drive 
With  wind  and  sails  their  cany  wagons  light." 

This  deficiency  of  junk-navigation  is  to  be  ascribed  in  part  to 
the  rapidity  of  the  current,  which  makes  the  downward  trip  dan- 
gerous and  the  return  voyage  next  to  impossible ;  or  it  may  be 
due  to  obstructions  in  the  river  where  it  breaks  away  from  its 
old  channel ;  but  the  best  explanation  is,  no  doubt,  to  be  found 
in  the  unsettled  state  of  the  country  through  which  it  flows,  its 
banks  until  recently  being  infested  by  ferocious  hordes  of  ban- 
ditti. "\Ve  have  never  heard  that  its  upper  waters  are  obstructed 
by  any  impassable  cataract ;  and  if  civil  barriers  were  removed,  it 
is  not  impossible  that  steamers  of  light  draught  might  make 
their  way  to  Lan-chau,  or  even  beyond  the  northwestern  bounda- 
ries of  China  proper;  traversing  en  route  five  great  provinces, 
and  communicating  with  three  provincial  capitals  and  with  de- 
partmental and  district  cities  without  number. 

In  a  geographical  point  of  view,  the  exploration  of  the  Yellow 
River  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  problems  of  the  age ;  and 
in  its  political  and  commercial  aspects  it  is  one  of  the  pressing 
questions  of  the  hour.  Natives  and  foreigners  would  both  profit 
by  the  opening  of  the  Ilwang-ho  to  steam-navigation.  To  the 
foreign  merchant  it  would  open  a  market  not  reached  by  any  of 
the  affluents  of  the  Yang-tsze-kiang,  while  to  the  natives  it  would 
bring  a  termination  of  that  terrible  brigandage  under  which  they 
have  been  suffering  for  so  many  years.  Let  us  hope  that  our 
ministers  will  bear  this  in  mind  in  the  negotiations  of  1868.* 

*  My  anticipations  in  regard  to  the  navigation  of  the  Yellow  River  are,  I 
fear,  not  destined  to  be  realized.  The  bar  at  the  mouth  forms  so  rapidly 
and  shifts  so  capriciously  that  it  is  doubtful  if  a  steam-dredge  would  prove 
of  any  permanent  utility.  Possibly  the  species  of  hydraulic  engineering 
which  Captain  Eads  has  applied  with  so  much  success  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  might  prove  equally  effectual  in  the  case  of  the  Yellow  River. 
As  to  the  upper  course  of  this  famous  stream,  we  now  know  that  it  is  so 


302  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Two  questions  require  attention  before  we  allow  ourselves  to 
dismiss  the  subject  of  the  Hwang-ho — the  course  pursued  by  its 
new  channel,  and  the  cause  of  that  wonderful  change  which  has 
thrown  five  hundred  miles  of  sea-coast  between  its  present  and 
its  former  embouchure. 

According  to  the  best  information  I  \vas  able  to  collect,  the 
breach  that  opened  the  new  channel  occurred  near  E-fung-hien, 
thirty  or  forty  miles  to  the  east  of  ITai-fung-fu.  From  that 
point,  washing  the  city  of  Kau-ching,  it  flows  north,  passing  un- 
der the  walls  of  Ts'au-chou-fu,  as  far  as  Fan-hien,  where  it  spreads 
into  a  lagoon  some  thirty  li,  or  ten  miles,  in  width.  I  passed  near 
this  place,  and  should  have  crossed  the  river  here  but  for  the  ice 
that  had  formed  on  the  lagoon.  Turning  in  an  easterly  direc- 
tion, it  intersects  the  Grand  Canal  at  Chang-ch'iu-chen,  ij||  ^. 
It  was  at  Li-liang-k'iau,  a  little  beyond  this  place,  that  I  crossed 
it — it  had  there  diverged  from  the  canal  to  the  distance  of  fif- 
teen li.  A  stone  bridge  that  gave  name  to  the  locality,  and 
•which  in  former  years  sufficed  to  carry  passengers  over  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Ta-ts'ing,  was  lying  in  ruins,  the  advent  of  the 
Hwang-ho  having  tossed  it  aside  with  little  ceremony.  From 
this  point,  it  not  only  usurps  the  bed  of  the  Ta-ts'ing,  but  oblit- 
erates its  very  name — the  natives  everywhere  speaking  of  that 
startling  phenomenon,  the  "  Coming  of  the  Yellow  "Waters." 

As  to  the  cause  of  this  phenomenon,  we  are  left  very  much  to 
conjecture.  Superstition  discovered  a  mysterious  relation  be- 
tween the  outbreak  of  the  Taiping  Rebellion  and  the  behavior 
of  the  unruly  stream  in  refusing  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Eastern 
Ocean,  bursting  over  all  bounds,  and  pouring  its  waters  into  what 
the  natives  call  the  Northern  Sea.  They  view  it  only  in  the  light 
of  a  portent ;  but  the  alleged  relation  is  not  to  be  set  aside  as 
altogether  imaginary.  Dr.  D.  J.  Macgowan,  who,  in  a  communi- 

obstructed  by  rapids  and  cascades  as  not  to  be  practicable  for  boats  of  any 
kind  excepting  from  stage  to  stage.     (Peking,  December,  1879.) 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  303 

cation  to  the  North  China  Herald,  first  drew  public  attention  to 
this  remarkable  change  in  the  Yellow  River,  quotes  authority  to 
show  that  "in  the  latter  part  of  1852  the  people  of  Hwaingan 
found  the  river  fordable,  and  in  the  spring  of  the  ensuing  year 
travellers  crossed  it  dry-shod."  Mr.  Wade,  in  the  Parliamentary 
Blue-book  for  1859-60,  cites  a  Chinese  document  to  the  effect 
that  by  an  inundation  in  1855  "the  north  bank  of  the  river  in 
Ilonan  was  carried  away,  and  the  river  ceased  to  flow."  Now, 
it  was  just  between  these  dates  that  the  rebel  invasion  of  the 
Northern  provinces  took  place ;  and  what  more  natural  supposi- 
tion can  we  make  than  that  the  Ho-tuh,  or  superintendent  of  the 
river  works,  who  has  under  hiui  a  force  of  sixty-four  thousand 
men,  on  a  quasi  military  footing,  should  have  found  other  employ- 
ment for  his  "  navvies  "  on  the  approach  of  the  enemy,  and  neg- 
lected the  river  at  a  critical  juncture  ?  He  may  even  have  em- 
ployed the  impetuous  stream  as  a  means  for  checking  their 
advance.  A  rumor  became  current  at  the  time  that  many  rebels 
had  been  drowned  in  consequence  of  the  river  breaking  its 
banks.  That  this  outbreak  was  the  result  of  neglect  occasioned 
by  the  rebel  panic  is  highly  probable ;  but  the  military  use  of 
the  river  which  I  have  just  hinted  at  is  not  without  a  precedent. 
The  Chinese  are  as  well  acquainted  with  this  method  of  extin- 
guishing an  enemy  as  were  the  heroes  of  the  Dutch  Republic. 
Not  to  speak  of  other  instances,  K'ai-fung-fa  has  in  this  way 
been  subjected  to  at  least  three  destructive  inundations.  Once 
by  the  forces  of  Ts'in,  for  the  purpose  of  dislodging  the  Prince 
of  Wei,  who  held  his  court  in  what  was  then  Called  Ta-liang; 
once  by  the  Mongols  in  their  conflict  with  the  Sung  dynasty ; 
and  again  by  a  general  of  the  Mings,  with  a  view  to  destroying 
a  body  of  rebels  who  were  laying  siege  to  the  city.  The  whole 
population  of  the  city  fell  victims  to  the  miserable  stratagem, 
and  Chinese  historians  charge  the  cruel  act  to  the  rebel  Li-tse- 
ching;  but  we  prefer  the  contemporary  testimony  of  Jesuit 
missionaries. 


304  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

It  is  not,  perhaps,  generally  known  that  the  Yellow  River,  in 
that  immense  departure  from  its  late  channel  which  excites  the 
astonishment  of  the  present  age,  is  only  returning  to  a  long-for- 
saken pathway.  The  highlands  of  Shantung  rise  like  an  island 
from  the  level  of  the  great  plain ;  and  it  appears  from  Chinese 
records  that  the  restless  river,  in  finding  its  way  to  the  sea,  has 
oscillated  with  something  like  periodic  regularity  from  one  side 
to  the  other  of  this  promontory,  and  at  two  epochs  flowed  with 
a  divided  current  converting  it  into  an  immense  delta.  These 
vagaries  are  minutely  traced  in  the  jfg  T^  £§  ^q,  a  hydrograph- 
ical  work  published  under  the  patronage  of  K'ang-he.  From 
this  we  learn  the  curious  fact  that  the  river  divided  its  waters 
between  the  two  principal  channels,  and  insulated  the  highlands 
of  Shantung  for  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  forty-six  years ;  and 
that  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  the  Mongols,  about  five  hundred 
years  ago,  that  it  became  settled  in  its  southern  bed.  The  writer 
concludes  with  the  expression  of  an  earnest  desire  that  the  troub- 
lesome stream  may  be  induced  to  return  to  its  northern  course. 
After  the  lapse  of  two  centuries,  his  wish  is  now  gratified. 

IV.  The  canal  where  I  crossed  it,  to  the  south  of  Tung-ch'ang- 
fu,  was  nearly  dry,  and  I  had  not  been  able  to  learn  whether  it 
was  in  a  working  condition  above  Ts'ing-kiang-p'u.  From  Kiuhfu 
to  this  place  it  was  accordingly  my  intention  to  proceed  by  land ; 
but  my  cart-driver,  taking  alarm  at  rumors  of  rebels,  refused  to 
advance,  and  I  was  compelled  to  seek  for  some  other  mode  of 
prosecuting  my  journey.  The  canal  was  suggested,  and  I  made 
my  way  in  that  direction  slowly,  painfully  toiling  on,  now  on 
foot,  now  on  a  wheelbarrow,  anon  mounted  on  one  of  the  impe- 
rial post-horses,  or  seated  in  a  mandarin  carriage.  At  length, 
ascending  a  hill,  I  saw  the  AVeishan  lake  spreading  its  silvery 
expanse  at  my  feet.  Embosoming  an  archipelago  of  green 
islands,  and  stretching  far  away  among  the  hills — to  my  eye  the 
scene  was  too  pleasing  to  be  real.  I  distrusted  my  senses,  and 
thought  it  a  mirage  such  as  often  before  had  cheated  my  hopes 


VISIT    TO    THE    JEWS.  305 

with  the  apparition  of  lake  and  stream;  and  when  my  guide 
assured  me  that  it  was  no  deceptive  show,  I  gave  way  to  trans- 
ports not  unlike  those  in  which  the  Greeks  indulged,  when,  escap- 
ing from  the  heart  of  Persia,  they  caught  a  distant  view  of  the 
waters  of  the  Euxine. 

Taking  passage  at  the  foot  of  the  lake,  I  glided  gently  down 
with  the  current,  and  reached  Chin-kiang-fu,  a  distance  of  nine 
hundred  li,  in  less  than  a  week. 

Through  this  portion  of  its  course  the  canal  deserves  the  ap- 
pellation of  "Grand."  For  the  first  half,  extending  to  Ts'ing- 
kiang-p'u,  it  varies  from  eighty  to  two  hundred  feet  in  width. 
Seething  and  foaming  as  it  rushes  from  the  lake,  and  rolling  on 
with  a  strong  current  through  the  whole  of  this  distance,  it  has 
more  the  appearance  of  a  natural  river  than  of  a  canal.  Near 
Ts'ing-kiang  it  parts  with  enough  of  its  water  to  form  a  navi- 
gable stream,  which  enters  the  sea  at  Hai-chau.  Beyond  this 
point,  where  it  intersects  the  old  bed  of  the  Yellow  River,  its 
waters  are  drawn  off  by  innumerable  sluices  to  irrigate  the  rice 
grounds,  until  it  is  reduced  to  about  forty  feet  in  breadth  and 
four  in  depth.  Recruited,  however,  by  a  timely  supply  from  the 
Kau-yu  lake,  it  recovers  much  of  its  former  strength,  and  flows 
on  to  the  Yang-tsze-kiang  with  a  velocity  that  makes  toilsome 
work  for  the  trackers. 

To  what  extent  the  canal  may  be  practicable  for  steam-navi- 
gation is  a  question  not  without  interest;  and  my  mind  had 
been  occupied  with  it  for  some  days,  when  I  happily  had  the 
opportunity  of  seeing  it  subjected  to  the  test  of  experiment. 
Just  off  the  city  of  Kau-yu,  where  the  canal  reaches  its  minimum 
depth,  I  met  the  Hyson,  a  well-known  tug-boat  from  Shanghai, 
towing  a  flotilla  of  war-junks.  She  would  be  able  to  reach  the 
city  of  Ts'ing-kiang-p'u,  but  not  to  go  beyond,  on  account  of  the 
locks  or  water-gates,  some  of  which  are  only  twelve  feet  in 
width. 

As  the  canal  now  is,  propellers  of  three  feet  draught  and  ten 


306  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

feet  beam,  making  up  in  length  what  they  lack  in  other  dimen- 
sions, might  drive  a  profitable  trade  between  Chin-kiang  and  Tsi- 
ning-chau,  a  distance  of  twelve  hundred  li;  but  the  utility  of  the 
canal  would  be  greatly  enhanced  by  adding  a  lock  or  two  in  the 
shallower  portions,  and  increasing  the  breadth  of  those  that  now 
exist,  so  as  to  admit  the  passage  of  larger  vessels.  A  little  en- 
gineering at  its  point  of  intersection  with  the  new  course  of  the 
Yellow  River  would  supply  an  abundance  of  water  to  a  portion 
that  is  dry,  making  its  facilities  for  junk-navigation  equal  to 
those  of  its  best  days ;  and  it  would  then  be  possible  for  steam- 
ers of  the  class  that  were  lately  employed  in  penetrating  to  the 
silk  districts  of  the  interior  to  make  inland  voyages  from  Shang- 
hai nearly  to  the  gates  of  Peking.* 

*  To  Tungchow,  twelve  miles  distant 


THE  DUKE  OF  K'UNO,  SUCCESSOR  OF  CONFUCIUS.    30? 


THE   DUKE    OF   K'UNG, 
SUCCESSOR  OF  CONFUCIUS. 

THE  Peking  Gazette  contains  the  following  obituary  announce- 
ment, in  the  usual  form  of  an  Imperial  decree:  "The  Duke 
K'ung  Siang-k'o,  lineal  successor  of  the  Holy  Sage,  has  departed 
this  life.  Let  the  proper  Board  report  as  to  the  marks  of  Im- 
perial favor  to  be  accorded  in  connection  with  the  funeral 
rites."  * 

The  Duke  was  about  twenty-six  years  of  age,  and  a  descend- 
ant of  Confucius  at  a  remove  of  more  than  seventyf  generations. 
Of  his  personal  character  we  know  nothing,  save  that  he  once 
admitted  a  company  of  foreigners,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Williamson  and 
others,  into  his  presence,  and  treated  them  with  great  urbanity. 
AVhat  interests  us  more,  and  furnishes  the  sole  reason  for  chron- 
icling his  death,  whether  in  these  lines  or  in  the  still  briefer  no- 
tice in  the  Peking  Gazette,  is  his  representative  character.  K'ung 
Siang-k'o  was  head  of  the  Confucian  clan,  and  as  such  he  en- 
joyed the  dignities  and  emoluments  of  a  noble  of  the  first  class. 

Hereditary  rank  makes  so  small  a  figure  in  the  administration 
of  the  Chinese  government  that  we  sometimes  hear  it  asserted 
that  there  is  no  such  thing  in  China.  Now,  those  who  hazard 
this  assertion,  not  only  leave  out  of  view  the  feudal  organization 

*  This  paper  was  written  in  18*76  for  the  Celestial  Empire  by  request  of 
the  editor.  The  designation  "  Successor  of  Confucius  "  may  not  be  thought 
well  chosen;  but  were  not  the  caliphs  styled  successors  of  the  Prophet? 
And  are  not  ecclesiastical  dignitaries  called  successors  of  the  apostles  ? 

\  The  last  on  the  family  record,  published  in  the  last  century,  was  the 
seventy-first. 


308  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

of  the  Manchu  and  Mongol  races,  but  forget  the  sonorous  titles 
prefixed  to  the  names  of  some  of  the  leading  Chinese  statesmen 
of  the  present  day.  We  can  scarcely  take  up  a  number  of  the 
Peking  Gazette  without  being  reminded  that  Li  Hung-chang  or 
Tso  Tsung-t'ang  is  an  earl  or  {fa,peh,  of  the  first  grade;  and  a 
few  years  ago  the  title  of  marquis,  $§,  hou,  was  made  equally 
prominent  in  connection  with  the  name  of  the  late  eminent 
Tseng  Kuo-fan.  On  the  decease  of  the  great  general,  the  title 
descended  in  due  course  to  his  son  Tseng  Ki-tsoh,*  who  writes 
and  signs  it  in  good  English  in  correspondence  with  his  foreign 
friends.  In  a  word,  all  the  five  degrees  of  hereditary  nobility 
which  were  in  use  three  thousand  years  ago  are  to  be  found  (by 
searching)  among  the  Chinese  of  to-day ;  but  with  this  impor- 
tant difference,  that  they  no  longer  imply  the  possession  of  land- 
ed estates  or  territorial  jurisdiction.  Leaving  the  secular  peer- 
age of  China  proper,  as  well  as  that  of  the  dominant  race,  to  be 
treated  by  some  one  who  has  leisure  and  inclination  for  the  sub- 
ject, we  propose  to  devote  a  few  paragraphs  to  what  we  venture 
to  denominate  the  sacred  heraldry  of  the  Empire. 

Ten  years  ago,  in  the  course  of  an  overland  journey  from  Pe- 
king to  Shanghai,  the  writer  turned  aside  to  visit  the  tomb  of 
Confucius.  Near  the  tumulus,  his  eye  was  attracted  by  an  in- 
scription informing  him  that  a  tree  of  which  the  decaying  stump 
was  all  that  remained  was  planted  by  the  hand  of  Tsze-K'ung; 
and  another  pointed  out  the  place  where  that  devoted  disciple 
had  passed  six  years  of  his  life  in  a  solitary  hermitage,  near  the 
ashes  of  his  master.  The  hut  which  he  occupied  has  long  since 
crumbled  to  dust,  and  the  sap  has  ceased  to  flow  through  the 
trunk  of  that  venerable  tree ;  but  the  family  of  the  Sage  still  con- 
tinues to  surround  the  sacred  spot,  the  associations  of  which  are 
more  unfading  than  the  evergreens  by  which  the  place  is  over- 
shadowed. It  was  an  impressive  spectacle  to  see  the  heads  of 

*  Minister  to  England,  1880. 


THE  DUKE  OF  K'UNG,  SUCCESSOR  OF  CONFUCIUS.    309 

the  various  brandies  into  which  the  clan  is  divided  performing 
their  semi-monthly  devotions  before  the  tablet  of  their  illustri- 
ous ancestor.  Many  of  these  discharge  official  duties,  and  con- 
stitute a  kind  of  priesthood  in  the  temple  of  the  Sage ;  their  ap- 
pointments, whether  hereditary  or  otherwise,  being  duly  record- 
ed in  the  Red  Book,  or  official  register.  -The  chief  of  the  tribe 

'  O 

is  known  as  Yen  Sheng  K'ung,  the  Duke  of  the  Holy  Succes- 
sion— a  succession  which  is  older  in  generations  than  most  aged 
men  are  in  the  reckoning  of  years.  There  are  Jewish  families 
who  can  boast  a  longer  pedigree — running  back,  perhaps,  to  the 
return  from  captivity,  B.C.  536 ;  but  where,  out  of  China,  shall 
we  look  for  a  family  whose  nobility  has  a  history  of  twenty  cen- 
turies ? 

The  first  hereditary  distinction  was  conferred  on  the  senior 
member  of  the  house  of  K'ung  by  the  founder  of  the  Han  dy- 
nasty, B.C.  202.  The  title  was  at  first  the  vague  designation  of 
keun,  prince,  and  coupled  with  the  charge  of  the  ancestral  tem- 
ple. This  was  exchanged  for  the  more  distinguishing  title  of 
hou,  marquis,  by  order  of  Wu-ti,  of  the  same  dynasty.  The 
later  Chow,  A.D.  550,  substituted  the  title  of  k'ung,  duke ;  but 
in  the  next  dynasty,  that  of  Suy,  it  reverted  to  marquis,  and  so 
continued  through  the  three  centuries  of  the  Tangs.  At  the  ac- 
cession of  the  Sung,  the  heir  of  Confucius  was  again  raised  to 
the  dignity  of  duke — a  rank  which  he  has  retained  without  ma- 
terial variation  for  more  than  eight  centuries. 

In  the  topographical  and  genealogical  histories  we  are  favored 
with  biographical  sketches  of  the  individual  links  in  this  long 
chain ;  but  through  them  all  there  runs  a  thread  of  dreary  mo- 
notony. In  earlier  ages,  the  house  of  K'ung  did  indeed  pro- 
duce a  few  men  of  exceptional  eminence  in  letters  and  in  poli- 
tics. They  are  not,  however,  always  found  in  the  line  of  primo- 
geniture, and  in  the  rare  instances  in  which  titled  heads  have 
distinguished  themselves  we  have  to  recognize  the  stimulating 
.influence  of  court  life,  from  which  they  were  not  yet  excluded. 


310  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 

Under  the  existing  regime,  the  succession  presents  us  no  name 
of  note ;  a  result  more  due  to  want  of  opportunity  than  to  any 
deterioration  of  race,  for,  according  to  some  observers,  the  blood 
of  Confucius  continues  to  assert  itself  in  the  superior  develop- 
ment of  his  posterity.  But  what  are  we  to  expect  when  a  fam- 
ily is  rooted  to  the  soil  of  a  cemetery  but  that  it  should  become 
as  barren  as  the  cypress  that  overhangs  it? 

The  Dukes  of  ITung  are  strictly  relegated  to  the  vicinity  of 
their  sacerdotal  charge,  and  are  not  at  liberty  to  visit  the  capital 
without  express  permission  from  the  throne. 

We  recall  the  late  Duke's  application  for  leave  to  prostrate 
himself  before  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Emperor  Tung-chih,  cer- 
tainly the  last  and  probably  the  only  occasion  on  which  he  ever 
entered  the  walls  of  Peking. 

The  family  estate,  it  must  be  confessed,  is  large  enough  to 
gratify  the  ambition  and  employ  the  energies  of  an  ordinary 
mortal,  amounting  (for  it  is  not  all  in  one  place)  to  an  area  of 
not  less  than  165,000  acres. 

And  as  for  honors,  the  country  nobleman  has  much  to  con- 
sole him  for  the  privations  of  provincial  life ;  the  Governor  of 
the  province,  it  is  said,  being  required  to  approach  him  with  the 
same  forms  of  homage  which  he  renders  to  the  Son  of  Heaven. 
Numerous  offices  of  inferior  dignity  are  conferred  on  other  mem- 
bers of  the  clan,  constituting  it  a  kind  of  Levitical  order ;  but  it 
is  pleasing  to  remark  that  these  tokens  of  a  nation's  undying 
gratitude  are  not  limited  to  the  lineage  of  Confucius.  Around 
the  grand  luminary  there  moved  a  cluster  of  satellites,  which 
drank  in  his  beams  and  propagated  his  light. 

The  chief  of  these  Yien,  Tseng,  Sze,  Heng,  as  the  Chinese 
concisely  call  them,  and  a  few  others,  continued  to  be  hon- 
ored in  the  same  way,  though  not  to  the  same  degree,  as  the 
Sage  himself.  Inseparable  attendants  of  the  Sage,  in  all  his 
temples,  at  least  one  of  which  exists  in  every  district  of  the  Em- 
pire, each  of  them  enjoys  the  honor  of  a  separate  shrine,  and 


THE    DUKE    OF    K'UNG,   SUCCESSOR    OF    CONFUCIUS.          311 

some  of  his  posterity  derive  their  subsistence  from  the  charge 
of  it.  In  the  city  of  Chii-fu,  a  conspicuous  inscription  points 
out  the  spot  where  Yien-hwei,  in  the  midst  of  poverty,  presented 
a  face  evejr  radiant  with  joy,  because  his  soul  was  filled  with  di- 
vine philosophy.  Hard  by  stands  a  magnificent  mausoleum  to 
the  man  who  never  wrote  a  book  and  never  performed  any  great 
exploit ;  but  who  embodied  in  his  own  practice  more  perfectly 
than  any  other  the  precepts  of  his  Master.  In  the  adjoining 
district  of  Tseo-hicn  stands  a  temple  to  Mencius,  the  St.  Paul  of 
Confucianism,  who,  though  he  entered  the  world  too  late  to  en- 
joy the  personal  teachings  of  the  Great  Sage,  did  more  than  any 
other  to  give  them  shape  and  currency.  Not  far  away,  in  the 
same  city,  stands  a  somewhat  dilapidated  temple  of  Tsze-sze,  the 
master  of  Mencius,  and  the  grandson  of  Confucius.  Though  in 
the  direct  line,  the  Chinese  have  not  been  willing  to  merge  his 
name  and  fame  in  those  of  his  ancestor ;  but  have  taken  effectual 
measures  for  testifying  to  all  generations  their  reverence  for  the 
author  of  the  Chung-yung,  or  "  Golden  Mean." 

The  whole  region  surrounding  the  temple  of  Confucius  is  dot- 
ted over  by  the  tombs  of  ancient  worthies ;  and  it  is  touching 
to  see  with  what  sacred  care  their  descendants  cherish  the  fire 
on  their  altars.  Under  various  designations  they  have  dis- 
charged these  offices  for  more  than  threescore,  and  in  one  in- 
stance for  nearly  a  hundred,  generations ;  but  their  present  titles 
date  from  the  Ming  dynasty.  The  founder  of  the  Mings,  an  un- 
lettered warrior,  who  never  read  the  Four  Books  until  he  was 
seated  on  the  throne  and  had  Liu-ki  for  a  teacher,  conferred 
certain  honors  on  the  descendants  of  Yien-hwei  and  Mencius. 
His  successors  ordered  that  representatives  of  fifteen  of  the  dis- 
ciples of  Confucius  should  be  enrolled  in  the  llanlin  College, 
and  invested  with  the  office  of  professors  and  curators  of  the 
Five  Classics. 

Nor  is  it  only  the  Great  Sage  and  his  disciples  who  enjoy  the 
distinction  of  a  memorial  temple,  a  State  ritual,  and  an  hereditary 


312  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

priesthood ;  all  these  are  accorded  to  the  Duke  of  Chow,  whom 
Confucius  revered  as  a  master  and  imitated  as  a  model.  Chow- 
kung  died  more  than  five  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  Con- 
fucius; but  the  later  Sage  not  only  professed  to  have  caught 
his  inspiration  from  the  earlier,  but  in  one  of  his  most  touching 
speeches  he  gave  it  as  a  mark  of  decaying  nature  that  he  had 
"  ceased  to  dream  of  Chow-kung." 

It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  the  family  of  the  virtuous 
Regent  of  China's  typical  dynasty  should  have  some  small  part 
in  the  cloud  of  incense  which  China  offers  to  the  pioneers  of  her 
civilization.  Their  claim  to  it  was  eloquently  advocated  by  one 
of  his  descendants  when  the  Emperor  Kang-hi  visited  the  "  sa- 
cred soil  of  Lu,"  and  promptly  recognized  by  that  enlightened 
monarch.  None  of  these  venerated  shades  is  regarded  as  exer- 
cising a  tutelar  guardianship  over  the  Empire,  or  over  any  part 
of  it.  Their  temples,  though  vulgar  superstitions  have  gathered 
round  them,  are  essentially  memorial,  and  the  worship  wholly 
commemorative.  It  is  thus  that  China  has  sought  to  mould  her 
children  into  one  family  and  to  secure  the  stability  of  society  by 
binding  it  to  the  traditions  of  the  past. 

The  representatives  of  these  families,  as  we  have  said,  arc  a 
priesthood  rather  than  a  nobility ;  but  so  closely  are  the  two 
ideas  associated  in  the  Chinese  mind  that  a  writer  of  these  fam- 
ily histories  finds  in  ancestral  worship  the  origin  of  feudal  dig- 
nities. His  philosophy  is  at  fault;  but  it  is  gratifying  to  ob- 
serve that,  while  the  feudal  lords  of  China  have  gone  under  in 
the  struggle  for  existence,  the  only  vestiges  of  the  ancient  nobil- 
ity (the  secular  are  all  new)  are  those  which  cluster  round  the 
memories  of  the  wise  and  good. 


TWO    CHINESE    POEMS.  313 


TWO   CHINESE  POEMS. 

NOTE. — As  the  foregoing  pages  contain  an  essay  on  the  prose 
composition  of  the  Chinese,  these  verses  are  added  as  a  specimen 
of  their  poetry.  Their  educated  men,  as  I  have  elsewhere  said, 
are  all  poets ;  and  various  collections  of  verses  by  female  writers 
show  that  they  have  their  Sapphos  and  Corinnas.  They  may 
also  claim  to  have  their  Jeanne  d'Arcs. 

The  ballad  which  celebrates  one  of  their  heroines  is  somewhat 
abridged  by  the  omission  of  incidents,  some  of  which  are  the 
opposite  of  poetical. 

The  tendency  of  the  Chinese  to  express  themselves  in  verse 
is  exhibited  in  the  occasional  issue  of  official  proclamations  in 
rhyme.  The  latest  illustration  of  this  national  taste  is  a  couplet 
which  the  Marquis  of  Tseng  sent  to  Peking  by  telegraph,  ac- 
knowledging the  Imperial  mandate  requiring  him  to  proceed  to 
Russia : 

fit    §    a    t 
a    »    »   n 

These  lines,  as  concise  as  the  responses  of  the  Delphic  oracle, 
may  be  thus  rendered  : 

"  My  knowledge  is  scant  and  my  powers  are  frail, 
At  the  voice  of  the  thunder  I  tremble  and  quail. 

11  PUKING,  April  15, 1880." 

14 


314  CHINESE    EDUCATION,  ETC. 


LINES  INSCRIBED  ON  A  FAN. 

Written  "by  Pan  Tsieh  Yu,  a  Lady  of  the  Court,  and  Presented  to  the 
Emperor  Cheng-ti,  of  the  Han  Dynasty,  B.  C.  18. 

Of  fresh  new  silk,  all  snowy-white, 

And  round  as  harvest  moon, 
A  pledge  of  purity  and  love, 

A  small  but  welcome  boon. 

While  summer  lasts,  borne  in  the  hand, 

Or  folded  on  the  breast, 
'Twill  gently  soothe  thy  burning  brow, 

And  charm  thee  to  thy  rest. 

But  ah  !  when  autumn  frosts  descend, 

And  autumn  winds  blow  cold, 
No  longer  sought,  no  longer  loved, 

'Twill  lie  in  dust  and  mould. 

This  silken  fan,  then,  deign  accept, 

Sad  emblem  of  my  lot, 
Caressed  and  cherished  for  an  hour, 

Then  speedily  forgot. 


TWO    CHINESE    POEMS. 


315 


M 


A       & 


*« 


IS 


316  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 


MULAN,  THE  MAIDEN  CHIEF : 
A  CHINESE  BALLAD  OF  THE  LIANG  DYNASTY  (A.D.  502-556). 

An  officer  being  disabled,  his  daughter  puts  on  his  armor,  and  so  dis- 
guised leads  his  troops  to  the  conflict.  The  original  is  anonymous 
and  of  uncertain  date. 

"  Say,  maiden  at  your  spinning-wheel, 
Why  heave  that  deep-drawn  sigh ! 

Is  't  fear,  perchance,  or  love  you  feel  ? 
Pray  tell — oh,  tell  me  why  !" 

"  Nor  fear  nor  love  has  moved  my  soul — 

Away  such  idle  thought ! 
A  warrior's  glory  is  the  goal 

By  my  ambition  sought. 

"  My  Father's  cherished  life  to  save, 

My  country  to  redeem, 
The  dangers  of  the  field  I'll  brave : 

I  am  not  what  I  seem. 

"  No  son  has  he  his  troop  to  lead, 

No  brother  dear  have  I ; 
So  I  must  mount  my  father's  steed, 

And  to  the  battle  hie." 

At  dawn  of  day  she  quits  her  door, 

At  evening  rests  her  head 
Where  loud  the  mountain  torrents  roar 

And  mail-clad  soldiers  tread. 


TWO    CHINESE    POEMS. 


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318  CHINESE    EDUCATION,   ETC. 

The  northern  plains  are  gained  at  last, 
The  mountains  sink  from  view; 

The  sun  shines  cold,  and  the  wintry  blast 
It  pierces  through  and  through. 

A  thousand  foes  around  her  fall, 
And  red  blood  stains  the  ground, 

But  Mulan,  who  survives  it  all, 
Returns  with  glory  crowned. 

Before  the  throne  they  bend  the  knee 

In  the  palace  of  Changan, 
Full  many  a  knight  of  high  degree, 

But  the  bravest  is  Mulan. 

"  Nay,  Prince,"  she  cries,  "  my  duty  's  done, 

No  guerdon  I  desire ; 
But  let  me  to  my  home  begone, 

To  cheer  my  aged  sire." 

She  nears  the  door  of  her  father's  home, 
A  chief  with  trumpet's  blare  ; 

But  when  she  doffs  her  waving  plume, 
She  stands  a  maiden  fair. 


TWO    CHINESE    POEMS. 


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KINGLAKE'S  CRIMEAN  WAR.  The  Invasion  of  the  Crimea :  its 
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VINCENT'S  LAND  OF  THE  WHITE  ELEPHANT.  The  Land 
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Personal  Narrative  of  Travel  and  Adventure  in  Farther  India,  era- 
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(1871-2).  By  FRANK  VINCENT,  Jr.  Illustrated.  Crown  8vo, 
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LIVINGSTONE'S  SOUTH  AFRICA.  Missionary  Travels  and  Re- 
searches in  South  Africa :  including  a  Sketch  of  Sixteen  Years' 
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wa  and  Nyassa,  1858-1864.  By  DAVID  and  CHARLES  LIVINGSTONE. 
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LIVINGSTONE'S  LAST  JOURNALS.  The  Last  Journals  of  David 
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bers, Industries,  and  Present  Condition.  By  CHARLES  NORDHOFF. 
Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00. 

NORDHOFF'S  CALIFORNIA.  California:  for  Health,  Pleasure, 
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8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 

NORDHOFF'S  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA  AND  THE  SAND- 
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GROTE'S  HISTORY  OF  GREECE.  12  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $18  00  ; 
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RECLUS'S  EARTH.  The  Earth:  a  Descriptive  History  of  the  Phe- 
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Maps  and  Illustrations,  and  23  Page  Maps  printed  in  Colors.  8vo, 
Cloth,  $5  00. 

RECLUS'S  OCEAN.  The  Ocean,  Atmosphere,  and  Life.  Being  the 
Second  Series  of  a  Descriptive  History  of  the  Life  of  the  Globe.  By 
£LISEE  RECLUS.  Profusely  Illustrated  with  250  Maps  or  Figures, 
and  27  Maps  printed  in  Colors.  8vo,  Cloth,  f  6  00. 

SHAKSPEARE.  The  Dramatic  Works  of  William  Shakspenre.  With 
Corrections  and  Notes.  Engravings.  6  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $9  00. 
2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00;  Sheep,  $5  00.  In  one  vol.,  8vo,  Sheep, 
$400. 

BAKER'S  ISMAILIA.  Isimiilia :  a  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  to 
Central  Africa  for  the  Suppression  of  the  Slave-trade,  organized  by 
Ismail,  Khedive  of  Egypt.  By  Sir  SAMUEL  WHITE  BAKER,  PASHA, 
F.R.S.,  F.R.G.S.  With  Maps,  Portraits,  and  Illustrations.  8vo, 
Cloth,  $5  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $7  25. 

GRIFFIS'S  JAPAN.  The  Mikado's  Empire  :  Book  I.  History  of  Ja- 
pan, from  660  B.C.  to  1872  A.D.  Book  II.  Personal  Experiences, 
Observations,  and  Studies  in  Japan,  1870-1874.  By  WILLIAM  EL- 
LIOT GRIFFIS,  A.M.,  late  of  the  Imperial  University  of  Tokio,  Japan. 
Copiously  Illustrated.  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00  ;  Half  Calf,  $6  25. 

SMILES'S  HISTORY  OF  THE  HUGUENOTS.  The  Huguenots: 
their  Settlements,  Churches,  and  Industries  fn  England  and  Ireland. 
By  SAMUEL  SMILES.  With  an  Appendix  relating  to  the  Huguenots 
in  America.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

SMILES'S  HUGUENOTS  AFTER  THE  REVOCATION.  The  Hu- 
guenots in  France  after  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  ;  with 
a  Visit  to  the  Country  of  the  Vaudois.  By  SAMUEL  SMILES.  Crown 
8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

SMILES'S  LIFE  OF  THE  STEPHENSONS.  The  Life  of  George 
Stephenson,  and  of  his  Son,  Robert  Stephenson ;  comprising,  also, 
a  History  of  the  Invention  and  Introduction  of  the  Railway  Loco- 
motive. By  SAMUEL  SMILES.  With  Steel  Portraits  and  numerous 
Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

RAWLINSON'S  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  HISTORY.  A  Manual 
of  Ancient  History,  from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Fall  of  the 
Western  Empire.  Comprising  the  History  of  Chaldaea,  Assyria,  Me- 
dia, Babylonia,  Lydia,  Phoenicia,  Syria,  Judaea,  Egypt,  Carthage, 
Persia,  Greece,  Macedonia,  Parthia,  and  Rome.  By  GEORGK  RAW- 
LIXSON,  M.A.,  Camden  Professor  of  Ancient  History  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford.  12mo,  Cloth,  f  I  25. 


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SCHLIEMANN'S  ILIOS.  Ilios,  the  City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans. 
A  Narrative  of  the  Most  Recent  Discoveries  and  Researches  made 
,on  the  Plain  of  Troy.  With  Illustrations  representing  nearly  2000 
Types  of  the  Objects  found  in  the  Excavations  of  the  Seven  Cities 
on  the  Site  of  Ilios.  By  Dr.  HENRY  SCHLIEMANN.  Maps,  Plans, 
and  Illustrations.  Imperial  8vo,  Illuminated  Cloth,  $12  00. 

ALISON'S  HISTORY  OF  EUROPE.  FIRST  SERIES  :  From  the  Com- 
mencement of  the  French  Revolution,  in  1789,  to  the  Restoration 
of  the  Bourbons  in  1815.  [In  addition  to  the  Notes  on  Chapter 
LXXVI.,  which  correct  the  errors  of  the  original  work  concerning 
the  United  States,  a  copious  Analytical  Index  has  been  appended  to 
this  American  Edition.]  SECOND  SERIES  :  From  the  Fall  of  Napo- 
leon, in  1815,  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napoleon,  in  1852.  8  vols., 
8vo,  Cloth,  $16  00 ;  Sheep,  $20  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $34  00. 

NORTON'S  STUDIES  OF  CHURCH-BUILDING.  Historical  Stud- 
ies of  Church-Building  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Venice,  Siena,  Flor- 
ence. By  CHARLES  ELIOT  NORTON.  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

BOSWELL'S  JOHNSON.  The  Life  of  Samuel  Johnson,  LL.D.,  in- 
cluding a  Journal  of  a  Tour  to  the  Hebrides.  By  JAMES  BOSWELL. 
Edited  by  J.  W.  CROKER,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  With  a  Portrait  of  Bos- 
well.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00  ;  Sheep,  $5  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $8  50. 

ADDISON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Joseph  Addi- 
son,  embracing  the  whole  of  the  Spectator,  3  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth, 
$6  00;  Sheep,  $7  50;  Half  Calf,  $12  75. 

SAMUEL  JOHNSON :  HIS  WORDS  AND  HIS  WAYS ;  what  he 
Said,  what  he  Did,  and  what  Men  Thought  and  Spoke  concerning 
him.  Edited  by  E.  T.  MASON.  12mo,  Cloth,  $1  50. 

JOHNSON'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  The  Works  of  Samuel  John- 
son, LL.D.  With  an  Essay  on  his  Life  and  Genius,  by  A.  MURPHY. 
2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $4  00 ;  Sheep,  $5  00 ;  Half  Calf,  $8  50. 

THE  VOYAGE  OF  THE  "CHALLENGER."  The  Atlantic:  an 
Account  of  the  General  Results  of  the  Voyage  during  1873,  and  the 
Early  Part  of  1876.  By  Sir  WYVILLB  THOMSON,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 
With  numerous  Illustrations,  Colored  Maps,  and  Charts,  and  Portrait 
of  the  Author.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $12  00. 

BLUNT'S  BEDOUIN  TRIBES  OF  THE  EUPHRATES.  Bedouin 
Tribes  of  the  Euphrates.  By  LADY  ANNE  BLUNT.  Edited,  with  a 
Preface  and  some  Account  of  the  Arabs  and  their  Horses,  by  W.  S.  B. 
Map  and  Sketches  by  the  Author.  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  50. 


8  Valuable  Works  for  Public  and  Private  Libraries. 

BOURNE'S  LOCKE.  The  Life  of  John  Locke.  By  H.  R.  Fox 
BOURNE.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  Uncut  Edges  and  Gilt  Tops,  $5  00. 

BROUGHAM'S  AUTOBIOGRAPHY.  Life  and  Times  of  Henry, 
Lord  Brougham.  Written  by  Himself.  3  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $6  00. 

THOMPSON'S  PAPACY  AND  THE  CIVIL  POWER.  The  Pa- 
pacy and  the  Civil  Power.  By  the  Hon.  R.  W.  THOMPSON,  Secretary 
of  the  U.  S.  Navy.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $3  00. 

ENGLISH  CORRESPONDENCE.  Four  Centuries  of  English  Let- 
ters. Selections  from  the  Correspondence  of  One  Hundred  and  Fif- 
ty Writers  from  the  Period  of  the  Paston  Letters  to  the  Present 
Day.  Edited  by  W.  BAPTISTE  SCOONES.  12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

THE  POETS  AND  POETRY  OF  SCOTLAND :  From  the  Earliest 
to  the  Present  Time.  Comprising  Characteristic  Selections  from 
the  Works  of  the  more  Noteworthy  Scottish  Poets,  with  Biographi- 
cal and  Critical  Notices.  By  JAMES  GEANT  WILSON.  With  Portraits 
on  Steel.  2  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $10  00;  Sheep,  $12  00;  Half  Calf, 
$  14  50  ;  Full  Morocco,  $18  00. 

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FRANCE. — GIBBON. — GREECE. — ROME  (by  LIDDELL). — OLD  TES- 
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EAST.  —  HALLAM'S  MIDDLE  AGES.  —  HALLAM'S  CONSTITUTIONAL 
HISTORY  OF  ENGLAND. — LYELL'S  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOLOGY. — MERI- 
TALE'S  GENERAL  HISTORY  OF  ROME. — Cox's  GENERAL  HISTORY 
OF  GREECE. — CLASSICAL  DICTIONARY.  $1  25  per  volume. 

LEWIS'S  HISTORY  OF  GERMANY. — ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY. — 
HUME'S  ENGLAND.     $1  50  per  volume. 

CRUISE  OF  THE  "CHALLENGER."  Voyages  over  many  Seas, 
Scenes  in  many  Lands.  By  W.  J.  J.  SPRY,  R.N.  With  Map  and 
Illustrations.  Crown  8vo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

DARWIN'S  VOYAGE  OF  A  NATURALIST.     Voyage  of  a  Natu- 
ralist.    Journal  of  Researches  into  the  Natural  History  and  Geology 
of  the  Countries  visited  during  the  Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Beagle  round 
.-the  World.     By  CHARLES  DARWIN.     2  vols.,  12mo,  Cloth,  $2  00. 

CAMERON'S  ACROSS  AFRICA.  Across  Africa.  By  VERNEY  Lov- 
ETT  CAMERON.  Map  and  Illustrations.  8vo,  Cloth,  $5  00. 

EARTH'S  NORTH  AND  CENTRAL  AFRICA.  Travels  and  Dis- 
coveries in  North  and  Central  Africa:  being  a  Journal  of  an  Expe- 
dition undertaken  under  the  Auspices  of  H.B.M.'s  Government,  in 
the  Years  1849-1855.  By  HENRY  EARTH,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L.  Illustra- 
ted. 3  vols.,  8vo,  Cloth,  $12  00 ;  Sheep,  $13  50 ;  Half  Calf,  $18  75. 


University  of  California 


from  which  it  was  borrowed 


A     000  056  334     6 


